Cosmic Speed beyond Light: Gravitational and Cosmic Redshift

Thakur, Soumendra & Bhattacharjee, Deep. (2023). Cosmic Speed beyond Light: Gravitational and Cosmic Redshift. 10.13140/RG.2.2.10802.58561. 

This research explores the intricate relationship between gravitational and cosmic redshift phenomena, unveiling a profound understanding of how light behaves as it traverses the cosmos. The study begins with an examination of gravitational redshift, a well-established concept occurring when photons move away from massive gravitational sources, such as stars within galaxies. Gravitational redshift, expressed as λ/λ_0 , manifests within the gravitational influence and extends to the boundary of the observed "zero-gravity sphere" enveloping galaxies. Within this remarkable zero-gravity sphere, gravitational effects persist, while the antigravity influence of dark energy remains negligible. As a result, gravitational redshift dominates, and cosmic redshift is notably absent within the sphere. Photons within this sphere maintain their constant speed 'c' and undergo gravitational redshift exclusively. However, as photons exit the zero-gravity sphere at a distance 'r' equivalent to the source star's radius, they encounter the onset of cosmic redshift, quantified as {(λ_obs - λ_emit)/ λ_emit}. Cosmic redshift blends with gravitational redshift, forming the effective redshift of the photon. Critically, the effective cosmic redshift surpasses gravitational redshift, illuminating a profound revelation: photons traverse a greater "light-traveled distance" than their proper distance from the source. In essence, cosmic redshift signifies that photons move across their intended distances at their intrinsic speed , while the expanding universe introduces a relative distance expansion, influenced by antigravity. This research delves into the intricate dance between gravitational and cosmic redshift, shedding light on their remarkable implications for our comprehension of the expanding universe.

Relativistic time

Thakur, Soumendra. (2023). Relativistic time. 10.32388/UJKHUB. 

Relativistic time encompasses a range of intriguing phenomena, including time distortion, error in time, time delay, and time shift. It emerges from the intricate interplay of relative frequencies influenced by relativistic effects, such as motion and variations in gravitational potential. This abstract concept can be understood as a phase shift in relative frequencies, driven by two fundamental mechanisms.

The first mechanism involves the infinitesimal loss of wave energy in oscillators with mass, resulting in time distortion or error in time measurement. This effect arises from the impact of motion on time measurement, manifesting as a phase shift or an error in the perception of time.

The second mechanism centers on the infinitesimal loss of energy in propagating waves, leading to time delay or time shift. This phenomenon extends beyond motion and encompasses variations in gravitational potential. As a result, it introduces variations in the passage of time.

Together, these mechanisms highlight the dynamic and interconnected relationship between relative frequencies, energy, and the perception of time in the context of relativistic effects. This abstract illuminates the multifaceted nature of relativistic time and the critical role it plays in our understanding of the fundamental principles governing the universe.

Relativistic effects cause error in time reading

Thakur, Soumendra. (2023). Relativistic effects cause error in time reading. 10.32388/3YQQBO.2. 

The paper, titled 'Relativistic effects cause errors in time reading', highlights how the concept of time dilation, a consequence of the theory of relativity, creates different time scales for proper time and time dilation. This difference in time scale introduces errors in clock readings when attempting to measure time dilation using the same units as proper time. 

The Planck scale limits our sensual perception

Thakur, Soumendra. (2023). The Planck scale limits our sensual perception. 10.32388/5PI8C5. 

The definition discusses the complex relationship between our sensory perception, especially as it relates to the physical world, and theoretical concepts related to the Planck scale. The Planck scale, denoted by the Planck length and Planck time, represents fundamental limits beyond which our direct sensory experiences cannot extend. Although beyond our direct perception, these Planck units are derived from empirical constants and are integral to theoretical physics for exploring the universe at extreme scales. The definition traces the contrast between actual sensory encounters and abstract concepts arising from these fundamental constants, underscoring their empirical basis. The definition also highlights the potential limitations of our current scientific model and the existence of unknown aspects of the universe.

It concludes by emphasizing the deep interplay between the physical world, theoretical constructs, and our understanding of reality, thus incorporating key concepts of definition.

Planck units

Planck units represent physical constants which are theoretical limits at the quantum level, which is the fabric of reality manipulated by Type Omega-minus. Quantum fluctuations exceeding these limits could break down the fabric of spacetime and reality and create rifts into other realms or dimensions.

At Planck scales, the strength of gravity becomes comparable with the other forces, and the fundamental forces are unified. String theory was the early approach to realize the Theory of Everything.

The scale was created by Max Planck in 1906, constructed solely out of the three fundamental constants:

Speed of light	c = 299792458 ms-1
Gravitational constant	G = 6.673(10) x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
Plank’s constant	= h/2π = 1.054571596(82) x 10-34 kg m2 s-1

Unit	Scale	Comment
Planck length	1.616 x 10−35 m	If a particle or dot about 0.1 mm in size (the diameter of human hair) were magnified in size to be as large as the universe, then inside that universe-sized dot, the Planck length would be roughly the size of an 0.1 mm dot. In other words, it would take more Planck lengths to span a grain of sand than it would take grains of sand to span the observable universe.
Planck mass	2.176 x 10−8 kg	An object of such mass would be a quantum black hole created at Planck time, with a Schwarzschild diameter of Planck length. This paper attempts to explain why the Planck mass is so large compared to other fundamental particles. Each time the indivisible particles that make an electron (for example) have travelled the reduced Compton wavelength of the electron, they counter-strike. The electron is therefore in a mass state only a fraction of the time. This is why the Planck mass can be so enormous compared to the electron rest-mass and still make up the electron as well as any other subatomic particle. The number of uncertain transitions between mass and energy for an electron is 7.76 x 1020 times per second. An electron is only 9.109 x 10-31 kg, or 2.389x1022 particles per Planck mass.

Planck time	5.391 x 10−44 s	In the Big Bang, the Planck epoch or Planck era is the earliest stage before the time passed  was approximately 10−43 seconds.
Planck temperature	1.417 x 1032 K (kelvin)	It's a billion billion times the highest natural temperatures in the current universe, found in gamma-ray bursts and quasars. This is absolute hot, conceived as an opposite to absolute zero. Everything 5×10−44 seconds after the Big Bang. Kugelblitzes.
Planck area	10−70 m2	Planck length squared. According to the Bekenstein bound, the entropy of a black hole is proportional to the number of Planck areas that it would take to cover the black hole's event horizon.
Planck volume	10−105 m3	Planck length cubed. A quantum black hole is contained within a Planck volume. There are about 10186 Planck volumes in the universe.
Planck energy	109 J (joules)	A quantum black hole must have Planck mass and Planck energy such that its escape velocity exceeds the speed of light.
Planck energy density	10-29 g/cm3	Analogous to Planck's law which describes the spectral density of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body.
Planck charge	10−18 C (coulombs)	The electric potential energy of one Planck charge on the surface of a sphere that is one Planck length in diameter is one Planck energy,
Planck force	1044 N (newtons)	The amount of force required to accelerate one Planck mass by one Planck acceleration
Planck density	1096 kg/m3	Equivalent to the mass of the universe packed into the volume of a single atomic nucleus.
Planck pressure	10113 Pa (pascals)	Equal to one Planck force in one Planck area. It is the gravitational force of attraction between two equal sized universes all concentrated on one fourth of Planck Area.
Planck acceleration	1051 m/s2	The acceleration due to gravity at the surface of a Planck mass or quantum black hole.
Planck frequency	1043 /s	Upper bound for the frequency (vibrations per second) of an electromagnetic wave.

Events invoke time

Thakur, Soumendra. (2023). Events invoke time. 10.32388/4HSIEC. 

The paper, titled 'Events Invoke Time' provides a comprehensive overview of the concept of time, its role in events and its relationship to the dimensions of space. It emphasizes the inextricable connection between events and time and how time serves as the fundamental framework for understanding the unfolding of events in our reality.

Time distortion occurs only in clocks with mass under relativistic effects, not in electromagnetic waves

Thakur, Soumendra. (2023). Time distortion occurs only in clocks with mass under relativistic effects, not in electromagnetic waves. 10.32388/7OXYH5. 

This research paper titled "Time distortion occurs only in clocks with mass under relativistic effects, not in electromagnetic waves" explores the phenomenon of time distortion resulting from phase shifts in oscillating waves, focusing on its effects on clocks with mass under relativistic conditions. Unlike electromagnetic waves, time distortion occurs in oscillators or clocks with specific conditions of mass, velocity, or gravitational potential. The relationship between phase shift and time delay is established, incorporating calculations involving frequency and wavelength. Real-world examples, such as the atomic clocks of GPS satellites, are provided to illustrate practical applications. The distinction between time distortion and time delay in electromagnetic waves is emphasized, with particular attention to the role of Planck time in defining a fundamental limit. The concept of the ratio of Planck period to Planck length is introduced as a representation of the speed limit of electromagnetic waves, resulting in a derived value of time delay per kilometer. This value underscores that electromagnetic waves experience time delay rather than the same type of time distortion observed in massive objects, highlighting their propagation speed and the absence of relativistic effects. 

Relativistic effects on phaseshift in frequencies invalidate time dilation II

Thakur, Soumendra & Samal, Priyanka & Bhattacharjee, Deep. (2023). Relativistic effects on phaseshift in frequencies invalidate time dilation II. 10.36227/techrxiv.22492066.v2. 

𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕: Relative time emerges from relative frequencies. It is the phase shift in relative frequencies due to infinitesimal loss in wave energy and corresponding enlargement in the wavelengths of oscillations; which occur in any clock between relative locations due to the relativistic effects or difference in gravitational potential; result error in the reading of clock time; which is wrongly presented as time dilation. 

Cosmic Influence in a Dark Energy Dominated Universe:

This research introduces the idea that gravitational redshift occurs within the gravitational influence of massive objects (e.g., galaxies), but as photons move beyond these regions, they also experience cosmic redshift caused by the influence of dark energy, which results in a greater observed redshift. This is a novel interpretation that suggests that the expansion of space driven by dark energy can affect the observed properties of photons, leading to a greater perceived distance traveled.

The Universe is composed of various components, with less than 5% being interactive baryonic matter, approximately 26% consisting of non-interactive but gravitationally interactive dark matter, and a substantial majority of over 68% being dark energy. This dark energy possesses an effective mass that is less than zero.

The relationship between gravity and dark energy is akin to a cosmic tug of war. While gravity exerts a force that draws galaxies closer together, dark energy exerts an opposing force, pushing these galaxies apart. This dynamic interplay is most evident in galaxies or clusters of galaxies, where zero-gravity spheres exist beyond the reach of gravitational influence. The overall expansion or contraction of the universe hinges on which force holds dominance at a particular time – gravity or dark energy. Dark energy, in particular, creates an anti-gravitational effect, consistently winning in this celestial tug of war. Beyond the gravitational influence of any object, there exists an ongoing contest between gravity and anti-gravity. Many fundamental principles of standard cosmological models describe the roles of gravity and expansion. This universal "tug of war" manifests itself as a dynamic, ever-changing universe, rather than a static one. This raises the fundamental question: How exactly is the universe evolving?

The structure of a typical cosmic cluster consists of three key mass components: matter mass (Mᴍ), dark-energy effective mass (Mᴅᴇ, with a value less than zero), and gravitating mass (Mᴳ). The dark energy backdrop exerts a more potent anti-gravity influence compared to the gravitational force of matter, resulting in the acceleration of cosmological expansion. This anti-gravity effect can be globally and locally stronger on scales ranging from approximately 1 to 10 Megaparsecs (Mpc). The effective density of dark energy, from a gravitational perspective, is negative, thus generating anti-gravity. Gravity dominates at distances within R < Rzᴳ, while anti-gravity becomes more pronounced at distances greater than Rzᴳ. A gravitationally bound system with a mass of Mᴍ can only exist within the zero-gravity sphere with a radius of Rzᴳ.

When considering the propagation of light, the concept of "light travel distance" comes into play. This distance refers to the path that light travels through free space in a given time. It is influenced by redshift and is calculated by measuring 'light travel time'.

In contrast, the 'proper distance' pertains to the separation between an observer and a source at a specific time 't'. This distance is not constant; it changes over time due to the continuous expansion of the universe. It signifies the distance between two galaxies at that specific time 't', which can vary as the universe continues to expand.

Gravitational Redshift:

Gravitational redshift occurs when a photon of light is emitted from a massive object (a "star") located at a distance (r) from the center of the object (the "star").

This process results in the stretching of the photon's wavelength, causing a "gravitational redshift" (λ/λ0) in the observed light.

Gravitational redshift is relevant within the gravitational influence of the massive object, such as a galaxy, specifically within the zero-gravity sphere of that galaxy with a radius (r) from its center.

Anti-Gravity and Cosmic Redshift:

The text introduces the concept of antigravity, driven by dark energy, which opposes gravitational effects.

The argument is that within the gravitational influence of a galaxy (up to the zero-gravity sphere), only gravitational redshift occurs. The speed of the photon remains constant at 'c' (the speed of light).

However, when the photon moves beyond the zero-gravity sphere (at a distance r from the center of the "star"), it begins to experience "cosmic redshift" in addition to gravitational redshift. Cosmic redshift is calculated as {(λ_obs - λ_emit)/ λ_emit}.

Effective Redshift:

The effective redshift of the photon is the combined effect of gravitational redshift (λ/λ0) and cosmic redshift {(λ_obs - λ_emit)/ λ_emit}.

The text concludes that the effective cosmic redshift is greater than the gravitational redshift. This implies that in regions dominated by anti-gravity (dark energy), the photon's relative distance is expanding at a greater rate than in regions of normal gravitational influence.

Interpretation:

The text suggests that the observed cosmic redshift in regions influenced by dark energy results in a "greater light traveled distance" compared to the photon's "proper distance" from its original emission point.

In simpler terms, this implies that in regions where dark energy dominates, the photon, while still traveling at its intrinsic speed ('c'), appears to be covering a larger relative distance due to the expansion of space.

Reference: Thakur, S. N., & Bhattacharjee, D. (2023, October 3). Cosmic Speed beyond Light: Gravitational and Cosmic Redshift. 

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