A question in the formation of black holes:

It is imminent due to the exhausted Hydrogen atoms in the nuclear fusion of a sufficiently massive star and its strong gravity that collapses such a dead star that stopped its nuclear fusion. The lack of gravitational compression in the core will cause the process of nuclear fusion to stop, since there will no longer be any force capable of fusing atomic nuclei together.

Nuclear fusion is the process that powers active or main sequence stars and other high-magnitude stars, where large amounts of energy are released. Energy released in most nuclear reactions is much larger than in chemical reactions, because the binding energy that holds a nucleus together is greater than the energy that holds electrons to a nucleus.

The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the release or the absorption of energy. So the difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic binding energy between the nuclei before and after the reaction in a nuclear fusion.

After the supply of hydrogen is exhausted in the cores of stars heavy enough, their cores start fusing helium to carbon.

In the most massive stars, the process is continued until some of their energy is produced by fusing lighter elements to iron. Iron has one of the highest binding energies; reactions producing heavier elements are generally endothermic.

Therefore significant amounts of heavier elements are not formed during stable periods of massive star evolution, but are formed in supernova explosions. Most black holes form from the remnants of a large star that dies in a supernova explosion.

#NuclearFusion #BlackHole

The waves – electromagnetic and mechanical (sound):

The electromagnetic waves are energy carrying waves. The orders of electromagnetic waves from highest to lowest energy are - gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, and radio waves. 

The seven types of electromagnetic waves with applications are - Radio waves: Communication; Microwaves: Heating and data transmission; Infrared waves: Used in remote control and imaging applications; Visible light: Help us see everything around us; Ultraviolet Waves: Useful in the study of galaxies; X-rays: Medical instruments to view bone structure; Gamma rays: Nuclear energy.

  

Waves                    Frequency Range (Hz)    Wavelength Range

Gamma-rays         10^20 - 10^24                < 10-12 m

X-rays                   10^17 - 10^20                1 nm - 1 pm

Ultraviolet             10^15 - 10^17                400 nm - 1 nm

Visible                   4-7.5*10^14                   750 nm - 400 nm

Near-infrared        1*10^14 - 4*10^14        2.5 μm - 750 nm

Infrared                 10^13 - 10^14                25 μm - 2.5 μm

Microwaves           3*10^11 - 10^13           1 mm - 25 μm

Radio waves          3*10^3 < 3*10^11          > 1 mm

The energy of a single photon is E=hf or (h/2π) ω where 'h' is Planck's constant 6.626×10^−34 Joule.Second. They always travel at the speed of light i.e. 3x10^8 m/s.

The lowest energy radio waves travel at the speed of light, the electromagnetic spectrum is longer than infrared light and they have frequencies from 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz.

Notable categories of mechanical waves are - transverse waves, longitudinal waves, and surface waves.

Sound waves, are mechanical waves, its frequency between 20Hz and 20KHz, and its wavelength is between 17 m and 17 mm, and travel at the speed of 343 m/s. Sound waves carry a small amount of mass with them as they travel.

The kinetic energy of the moving material particle E = (mv^2)/2 Joules, where its potential energy=0. They always travel as mechanical waves.

#EnergyOfWaves #ElectromagneticWaves #GammaRays #XRays #UltravioletRadiation #VisibleLight #InfraredRadiation #Microwaves #RadioWaves #Photon #PhotonEnergy #PlancksConstant #ElectromagneticSpectrum #SoundWaves #KinetiEnergy

 

 

 

The Universal birth of Chemistry - Helium hydride (HeH+):

The most abundant elements in the universe - Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He):
Hydrogen (H) is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe, it has one proton, no neutron and one electron with an atomic number of 1, it is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, and highly flammable, diatomic gas.

Helium (He) is the second most abundant element in the universe, it has two protons, two neutrons and two electrons with an atomic number of 2, it is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic, noble gas - the first in the noble gas group. It is the smallest and the lightest noble gas.

Fusion is the process that powers the sun and the stars:
The fusion of Hydrogen nuclei uses up Hydrogen (H) to produce Helium (He) and energy, Hydrogen is the fuel for the process. This is called nuclear fusion. Fusion is the process that powers the Sun and the stars. It takes four Hydrogen (H) atoms to fuse into each Helium (He) atom. During the process some of the mass of the Hydrogen is converted into energy. Thus fusion has the potential to be a limitless source of energy. As the Hydrogen is used up, the core of the star condenses and heats up even more.

The noble gases - the majestic gases don't likely to react with anything:
The noble gases, also called inert gases or aerogens, are all odourless, colourless, monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity. Helium (He) itself is a noble gas making it very unlikely to combine with any other kind of atom.

The universal birth of chemistry- Hydrogen (H) bond to Helium (He):
A Helium (He) atom bonded to a Hydrogen (H) atom 'one electron removed' produce Helium hydride (HeH+). It is viewed as protonated helium. It is the lightest heteronuclear ion, and is known to be the first compound formed in the Universe after the Big Bang; at a time called the 'dawn of chemistry'. It is a positively charged stable molecule and the strongest acid known. Scientists have deduced from evidence and reasoning that Helium Hydride (HeH+) was the first, primordial molecule in the Universe. It is an excessively particular molecule.

#HeliumHydride #NobleGas #Fusion#Helium #Hydrogen #birthofchemistry

Anything before the Big Bang in a question:

Space & the Universe is expanding at an ever accelerating speed, this indicates once the Universe was smaller than it is now; up to a point form.

A state prior to the Big Bang necessarily needs to be a point form, having no dimension, besides space and time (those we know) cannot be there before the Big Bang. Prior to the Big Bang, it was a no dimensional singularity with gravity infinite. 

 

Immediately after the Big Bang and before a non-inflationary time classified as a Planck time i.e. 10^-43 seconds, it was not possible for any subatomic particles - e.g. nuclei, electrons or photons - to be existed then, it was too hot and dense for any particles to be stable, as all the known form of interactions must be united then as gravity - in absence of anything intractable; either through strong or weak nuclear interactions, or electromagnetic interaction, except gravitational interaction, - but then the first quarks formed.

 

Since we reside in three dimensional world; anything beyond that would be imperceptible to us, also anything in such extra dimensional state naturally would be a meaningless proposition to us.

 

#beforethebigbang #TheBigBang #BigBang

Consequence in time for time as emergent property of the events:

Time does not run slower or faster, as time can only read more or less time on a clock.

 

Time dilation proposition attempts to convey the difference in the elapsed time as measured by two clocks. It is either due to a relative velocity between them or to a difference in gravitational potential between their locations.

However, time dilation is a defective proposition as this violates character of time.  Time is not dilatable since time is the emergent property of the events, whereas events invoke time. The indefinite continued progress of existence and events in the past, present, and future regarded as a whole, in irreversible succession is know as time. Time would not exist in absence of events even if there is existence without space. Therefore, for time to exist both events and space is a prerequisite. Events are real three dimensional and time is conceptual single dimensional conceptualised as residing in the fourth, imperceptible dimension. Events are real and time is conceptual. Events invoke readings of time on the clock.

A frame of reference in space is the Universal three dimensional frame of reference for everything, and events take place within it. So even if one imposes a moving local frame of reference relative to another observer on Earth even then, both frame of references between the observer and the moving one would be the one, within the Universal three dimensional frame of reference ultimately.

Therefore, no influence or interaction can slow down time but frequencies of the events can be lowered, hence, for an external observer wavelength of the moving mass-energy body can be enlarged due to a relative velocity between them or to a difference in gravitational potential between their locations.

It is rather wavelength dilation in the event and not time dilation.

 

#time #timedilation #event #wavelengthdilation

 

For time to exist event always necessary:

Time is a conceptual component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to compare the duration of events or the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change of quantities in material reality or in the conscious experience. It is referred to as a fourth dimension - imperceptible to us, along with three spatial dimensions - perceptible.

“Time can be defined as the indefinite continued progress of existence and events have been occurring in an irreversible succession, in the past, present, and future regarded as a whole.”

Therefore, for time to exist, not only existence, but events in space is necessary, without events or in space; time simply cannot exist.

In the Universal singularity, there was existence as the universe was an infinite stretch of an ultra hot, dense material, persisting in a steady state but that existence was without time and space.

Read more Time as in brief description | Character of time | Absolute time versus relative time

#time #event #events #existence #space 

Fundamental error in the consideration of time in time dilation - an article:

This article realises errors of fundamental nature in the consideration of time; as in the proposition of time dilation, twin paradox, as well as this article experiences obvious wrongful method of calculation as used in the experiments relevant. As such this article holds time dilation, twin paradox and, the results of those experiments to be wrong. The time dilation, twin paradox deals with speed and gravity; it holds that faster one moves approaching the speed of light, then the succession of time becomes slower for him as he aged less than the one on Earth. Several experiments directly proved time dilation, hence twin paradox held to be true. The holding of said wrong was based on the speed-gravity affected wavelength of energy-frequency body, rather than speed-gravity affected time as in original energy-mass body, this traced on the derived equation λ∝T, where λ is the wavelength of the fast moving energy-frequency body and, T is the time period involving the wavelength of same said energy-frequency body.

1. The time dilation effect of Einstein's special relativity deals with speed. The proposition conveys that the faster one moving the slower time goes for him. It is also interpreted that if one of a pair of twins makes a long journey at near the speed of light, when returns, he will have aged less than the twin who remains behind. There are several direct proofs of time dilation.

2. The experiments at a particle accelerator in Germany that confirmed time moves slower for a moving clock than for a stationary one, and NASA experiments confirmed that when two very accurate atomic clocks were synchronized and one was taken on a high speed trip on an airplane, when the plane returned, the clock that took the plane ride was slower by exactly the amount Einstein's equations predicted. These experiments appear to prove propositions of time dilation and twin paradox to be well founded or true.

3. As such, time dilation dependent on the relative speeds of the observers' reference frame; hence the speeding objects are out of a gravitational well in comparison to the observer.  

4. In general relativity (GR), gravitational redshift, known as Einstein shift, is the phenomenon in which electromagnetic waves or photons travelling out of a gravitational well subject to lose energy. Similarly an atomic clock taking a high speed trip and travelling out of a gravitational well too subject to lose energy. This loss of energy corresponds to a decrease in the wave frequency and increase in the wavelength, known as a redshift. The GR theory therefore predicts that the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation will lengthen as it climbs out of a gravitational well, this corresponds to an increase in the wavelength, or a shift to the red end of the electromagnetic spectrum – hence the name: gravitational redshift.

5. However, the Planck's law helps us to calculate the energy when their frequency is known, as such wavelength is known, so one can calculate the energy by using the wave equation to calculate the frequency and then apply Planck's equation to find the energy. And the equation is E=hf - which predates Einstein’s E= mc².

6. We know that frequency (f') of the wave or body is inversely proportional to the wavelength (λ) (Lambda) of that wave or body, which can be presented by the equation f ∝1/λ. The frequency (f) too is inversely proportional to time period (T) in second, and presented by the equation f ∝1/T.

7. Accordingly, the wavelength (λ) of that mass-energy (wave or body) is directly proportional to the time period (T) of the wave derives the equation λ∝T. By applying the equation λ∝T we get the wave corresponds to time shift. E.g. 1° phase shift on a 5 MHz wave corresponds to a time shift of 555 picoseconds.

8. In an electronic laboratory, when we do experiments, we can see that the crystal oscillators use mechanical resonance of vibrating crystals of piezoelectric material and create electrical signal with a constant frequency, and atomic oscillators are based on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation in excited states of certain atoms which is used as constant frequency. Both of these types of the oscillators are subject to mechanical stress due to gravitational force (g-force) and their frequencies correspond to respective time shifts due to the varied gravitational forces exerted on them, where the equation λ∝T applies.

9. As per the Doppler Effect, an increase or decrease between the frequency (f) of waves and the observers, respectively move towards or away from each other. The effect causes the change in the red shift (as seen by the astronomers), which is supported by the equation f ∝1/λ. And in general relativity, gravitational redshift is the phenomenon in which electromagnetic waves or photons travelling out of a gravitational well subject to lose energy, which is supported by Planck’s energy-frequency equivalence represented by the equation E∝f and the frequencies subject to f ∝1/λ – this means when E decreases so f decreases resulting increase in λ since f ∝1/λ.

10. Hence, the speeding objects out of gravitational well experience less gravitational force per unit mass of that body, as its energy E decreases correspondingly its frequency too (f) decreases, as a result there is the increase in its wavelength (λ) and the red shift as per the Doppler Effect. This ultimately causes less mechanical stress on oscillating particles within that body causing lowered frequency and increasing its wavelength so the body experiences enlarged time period due to the equation λ∝T. Therefore, the wavelength (λ) dilated, not its time period (T) dilated, but T reads greater time due to the event of the body as it lowered its frequency, dilating its wavelength (λ) invoking time to read more than before, when the body was in a gravitational well earlier.

11. What actually happens in the experiments as can be seen in the relationship λ∝T. The experiments actually need to consider dilated wavelength and not dilated time. If the experiments consider that they observed dilation of time then it will violate fundamental characteristics of time. It would rather miscalculate T instead of calculating λ, because by considering changed/dilated values either of the value of the λ or even the value of T, one will get same result. But the illegality would be considering T as gravity affected consideration instead of appropriately considering λ as the gravity affected consideration. A λ can be influenced by gravity and change its wavelength but none can change uniformed scale of T with the effect of  gravity; as time itself is not something changeable by any external interaction or influence unless such changes are in the structure of the events themselves, then only time comes into a relative consideration with the changeable events. Time itself does not participate in any eventual act rather time tracks changes in the events. So a question of changing unit scale of time itself is not only absurd but is illegal too as per valid definition and properties of time. Time dilation necessarily needs to be wavelength dilation, when λ∝T comes in to the consideration.

12. Therefore, time dilation or twin paradox is absurd propositions, despite the sound reasoning and experiments from acceptable premises said, for the grounds that gravity cannot interact with time nor can it influence normal succession of time, the same happens with speed too. Succession of time is independent from events hence, independent from gravity or speed causing gravitation difference. Events only invokes the value of time, and not affecting it in its scale.

13. The dark energy background produces antigravity which is stronger than the matter gravity in the present Universe as a whole. Antigravity exerted by dark energy affects a cosmic structure strongly at large scale. The effective mass of dark energy is <0 and its gravitating mass is more than matter mass that results a strong effect at large scale, as such the cosmological expansion accelerate. Had the antigravity interacted with time it could have influenced normal succession of time in a large scale time reduction. However, succession of time is normal even where dark energy produces antigravity which is stronger than the matter gravity in the present Universe at large scale.

14. The succession of time is conceptual, irreversible (in its uniformed scale), in case of a clock dial; sixty uniformed divisions of seconds need to be within a circle of 360° exactly, it cannot be > 360° (to accommodate time dilation), nor can be < 360° (to accommodate time reduction.)

Therefore, this article finds errors of fundamental nature in the consideration of time; as in the proposition of time dilation, twin paradox, as well as experiences obvious wrongful method of calculation used in the experiments relevant. As such this article holds time dilation, twin paradox and, the results of those experiments to be wrong. 

Time dilation is rather wavelength dilation.

- By Soumendra Nath Thakur.

 

#AbsoluteTime #AbstractMathematics #AbstractScience #EnergyFrequency #EnergyFrequencyInteraction #EnergyGravityInteraction #EnergyMass #Frequency #FrequencyGravityInteraction #GeneralRelativity #GravitationalRedShift #Gravity #Mass #MassGravityInteraction #MechanicalStress #OriginPoint #PlankEquation #PlanksEquation #Reality #Redshift #RelativeTime #Space #SpecialRelativity #Time #TimeDilation #Wavelength #WavelengthDilation