Cosmic Speed beyond Light: Gravitational and Cosmic Redshift

Thakur, Soumendra & Bhattacharjee, Deep. (2023). Cosmic Speed beyond Light: Gravitational and Cosmic Redshift. 10.13140/RG.2.2.10802.58561. 

This research explores the intricate relationship between gravitational and cosmic redshift phenomena, unveiling a profound understanding of how light behaves as it traverses the cosmos. The study begins with an examination of gravitational redshift, a well-established concept occurring when photons move away from massive gravitational sources, such as stars within galaxies. Gravitational redshift, expressed as λ/λ_0 , manifests within the gravitational influence and extends to the boundary of the observed "zero-gravity sphere" enveloping galaxies. Within this remarkable zero-gravity sphere, gravitational effects persist, while the antigravity influence of dark energy remains negligible. As a result, gravitational redshift dominates, and cosmic redshift is notably absent within the sphere. Photons within this sphere maintain their constant speed 'c' and undergo gravitational redshift exclusively. However, as photons exit the zero-gravity sphere at a distance 'r' equivalent to the source star's radius, they encounter the onset of cosmic redshift, quantified as {(λ_obs - λ_emit)/ λ_emit}. Cosmic redshift blends with gravitational redshift, forming the effective redshift of the photon. Critically, the effective cosmic redshift surpasses gravitational redshift, illuminating a profound revelation: photons traverse a greater "light-traveled distance" than their proper distance from the source. In essence, cosmic redshift signifies that photons move across their intended distances at their intrinsic speed , while the expanding universe introduces a relative distance expansion, influenced by antigravity. This research delves into the intricate dance between gravitational and cosmic redshift, shedding light on their remarkable implications for our comprehension of the expanding universe.

Relativistic time

Thakur, Soumendra. (2023). Relativistic time. 10.32388/UJKHUB. 

Relativistic time encompasses a range of intriguing phenomena, including time distortion, error in time, time delay, and time shift. It emerges from the intricate interplay of relative frequencies influenced by relativistic effects, such as motion and variations in gravitational potential. This abstract concept can be understood as a phase shift in relative frequencies, driven by two fundamental mechanisms.

The first mechanism involves the infinitesimal loss of wave energy in oscillators with mass, resulting in time distortion or error in time measurement. This effect arises from the impact of motion on time measurement, manifesting as a phase shift or an error in the perception of time.

The second mechanism centers on the infinitesimal loss of energy in propagating waves, leading to time delay or time shift. This phenomenon extends beyond motion and encompasses variations in gravitational potential. As a result, it introduces variations in the passage of time.

Together, these mechanisms highlight the dynamic and interconnected relationship between relative frequencies, energy, and the perception of time in the context of relativistic effects. This abstract illuminates the multifaceted nature of relativistic time and the critical role it plays in our understanding of the fundamental principles governing the universe.

Relativistic effects cause error in time reading

Thakur, Soumendra. (2023). Relativistic effects cause error in time reading. 10.32388/3YQQBO.2. 

The paper, titled 'Relativistic effects cause errors in time reading', highlights how the concept of time dilation, a consequence of the theory of relativity, creates different time scales for proper time and time dilation. This difference in time scale introduces errors in clock readings when attempting to measure time dilation using the same units as proper time. 

The Planck scale limits our sensual perception

Thakur, Soumendra. (2023). The Planck scale limits our sensual perception. 10.32388/5PI8C5. 

The definition discusses the complex relationship between our sensory perception, especially as it relates to the physical world, and theoretical concepts related to the Planck scale. The Planck scale, denoted by the Planck length and Planck time, represents fundamental limits beyond which our direct sensory experiences cannot extend. Although beyond our direct perception, these Planck units are derived from empirical constants and are integral to theoretical physics for exploring the universe at extreme scales. The definition traces the contrast between actual sensory encounters and abstract concepts arising from these fundamental constants, underscoring their empirical basis. The definition also highlights the potential limitations of our current scientific model and the existence of unknown aspects of the universe.

It concludes by emphasizing the deep interplay between the physical world, theoretical constructs, and our understanding of reality, thus incorporating key concepts of definition.

Planck units

Planck units represent physical constants which are theoretical limits at the quantum level, which is the fabric of reality manipulated by Type Omega-minus. Quantum fluctuations exceeding these limits could break down the fabric of spacetime and reality and create rifts into other realms or dimensions.

At Planck scales, the strength of gravity becomes comparable with the other forces, and the fundamental forces are unified. String theory was the early approach to realize the Theory of Everything.

The scale was created by Max Planck in 1906, constructed solely out of the three fundamental constants:

Speed of light	c = 299792458 ms-1
Gravitational constant	G = 6.673(10) x 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
Plank’s constant	= h/2π = 1.054571596(82) x 10-34 kg m2 s-1

Unit	Scale	Comment
Planck length	1.616 x 10−35 m	If a particle or dot about 0.1 mm in size (the diameter of human hair) were magnified in size to be as large as the universe, then inside that universe-sized dot, the Planck length would be roughly the size of an 0.1 mm dot. In other words, it would take more Planck lengths to span a grain of sand than it would take grains of sand to span the observable universe.
Planck mass	2.176 x 10−8 kg	An object of such mass would be a quantum black hole created at Planck time, with a Schwarzschild diameter of Planck length. This paper attempts to explain why the Planck mass is so large compared to other fundamental particles. Each time the indivisible particles that make an electron (for example) have travelled the reduced Compton wavelength of the electron, they counter-strike. The electron is therefore in a mass state only a fraction of the time. This is why the Planck mass can be so enormous compared to the electron rest-mass and still make up the electron as well as any other subatomic particle. The number of uncertain transitions between mass and energy for an electron is 7.76 x 1020 times per second. An electron is only 9.109 x 10-31 kg, or 2.389x1022 particles per Planck mass.

Planck time	5.391 x 10−44 s	In the Big Bang, the Planck epoch or Planck era is the earliest stage before the time passed  was approximately 10−43 seconds.
Planck temperature	1.417 x 1032 K (kelvin)	It's a billion billion times the highest natural temperatures in the current universe, found in gamma-ray bursts and quasars. This is absolute hot, conceived as an opposite to absolute zero. Everything 5×10−44 seconds after the Big Bang. Kugelblitzes.
Planck area	10−70 m2	Planck length squared. According to the Bekenstein bound, the entropy of a black hole is proportional to the number of Planck areas that it would take to cover the black hole's event horizon.
Planck volume	10−105 m3	Planck length cubed. A quantum black hole is contained within a Planck volume. There are about 10186 Planck volumes in the universe.
Planck energy	109 J (joules)	A quantum black hole must have Planck mass and Planck energy such that its escape velocity exceeds the speed of light.
Planck energy density	10-29 g/cm3	Analogous to Planck's law which describes the spectral density of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body.
Planck charge	10−18 C (coulombs)	The electric potential energy of one Planck charge on the surface of a sphere that is one Planck length in diameter is one Planck energy,
Planck force	1044 N (newtons)	The amount of force required to accelerate one Planck mass by one Planck acceleration
Planck density	1096 kg/m3	Equivalent to the mass of the universe packed into the volume of a single atomic nucleus.
Planck pressure	10113 Pa (pascals)	Equal to one Planck force in one Planck area. It is the gravitational force of attraction between two equal sized universes all concentrated on one fourth of Planck Area.
Planck acceleration	1051 m/s2	The acceleration due to gravity at the surface of a Planck mass or quantum black hole.
Planck frequency	1043 /s	Upper bound for the frequency (vibrations per second) of an electromagnetic wave.

Events invoke time

Thakur, Soumendra. (2023). Events invoke time. 10.32388/4HSIEC. 

The paper, titled 'Events Invoke Time' provides a comprehensive overview of the concept of time, its role in events and its relationship to the dimensions of space. It emphasizes the inextricable connection between events and time and how time serves as the fundamental framework for understanding the unfolding of events in our reality.