Is there any particle moving more than the velocity c (speed of light ) in the universe?

Replied that -

There are basically two types of known effects in which the macro-existence of the universe is observed.

1. Gravitationally bound objects, such as a galaxy, cluster of galaxies, mega or super cluster of galaxies.
2. Dark energy influenced objects, such as a galaxy, cluster of galaxies, mega or super cluster of galaxies, where antigravity rules.

Beyond such gravitationally bound objects are their respective zero-gravity spheres, where dark energy rules.

Planck ratio which expresses the ratio of Planck length and Planck time determines speed limit: ℓP/tP = c;

However, outside the zero-gravity sphere, the speed limit does not apply, as there can be accommodated by speeds greater than ℓP/tP = c.

There an entire galaxy can travel much faster than light, even at multiples of c.

Question: mass-energy equality and photon energy?

Your mathematical representation of mass m0 in the equation {m = m0/√(1 − v2/c2)}, when v = c, is an incorrect approach in mathematics and also in special relativity.

The reason is that the equation, which you mentioned in your paper, does not apply when you consider a speed v = c.

Also, at a speed (c), m0 is no longer mass.

When the momentum of such a massless photon needs to be evaluated by the equation

• p = h/λ,

where λ is the photon wavelength, p (roh) is the photon momentum and h is Planck's constant.

Such a massless photon would have energy 

• E = hf,
• since, f = c/λ; E = hc/λ, p = h/λ
• Therefore, E = pc

The equation you chose to calculate the mass m0 at speed v = c is an incorrect application.

Please note, the time dilation equation (due to motion) is also an incorrect application, because the speed v and c used in the time dilation equation, should not modify the proper time (t), unless intentionally inviting error in the calculation.

The part of the equation √(1 - v²/c²) in {t' = t/√(1 − v2/c2)} should not modify the proper time (t), to get the dilated time (t'), because the proper time t should not be interfered by some external effect, such as speed (v), unless one invites intentional error in calculations.

Regarding the last comment above, this paper is noteworthy

Preprint Relativistic effects on phaseshift in frequencies invalidate...

Relative mass is the mass assigned to a body in motion:

Relativistic mass is also invariant mass, just as the relativistic energy of a single particle is equal to its rest energy as seen from its rest frame.

Relative velocity is the motion of an object relative to an observer, as described by the theory of relativity. Basically, special relativity explains the relationship between space, time, mass and energy in speed or velocity but does not include gravity. Therefore, relative speed or velocity is relevant in special relativity.

Relative speed:

Refers to the speed at which relativistic effects become significant for the desired accuracy of measurement of the observed phenomenon. Time dilation, in special relativity, is the difference in elapsed time measured by two clocks due to a relative velocity between them.

Note that Time distortion occurs only in clocks with mass under relativistic effects, not in electromagnetic waves, where electromagnetic waves move at the speed (c). Therefore, at the speed (c) there will be no clock to measure the time for massless photon. Refer here -

Chapter Time distortion occurs only in clocks with mass under relativistic ... 

Necessarily such relative velocities, in special relativity, are less than the speed of light (c). However, at the speed of light (c), there will be no time dilation, because electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of (c) do not have time dilation, but there is a propagation delay in (c).

Also, in (c) motion there will be no clock to measure relative time.

From the relativistic mass equation, it can be seen that as the object accelerates faster and faster, its mass becomes larger and larger. However, consider that such mass must be between and less than the speed of light (c), because at speed (c) there would be no clock to measure relative time. But (c) has propagation delay.

Therefore, your mathematical representation of the mass m0 in the equation {m = m0/√(1 − v2/c2)}, when v = c, is an incorrect approach in mathematics and also in special relativity.

The reason is that the equation, which you mentioned in your paper, does not apply when you consider a speed v = c.

Also, at a speed (c), m0 is no longer mass, but energy.

Photon is not the only enetgetic form:

Nuclear reactions, even in radioactive decay, photons are not the only form of energy converted from mass. There are alpha, beta and gamma particles known as helium-4, electrons and gamma photons respectively.

The energy-mass equation E = mc^2 is not just about converting mass (m) to photon energy. Rather refers to a combination of alpha, beta and gamma energies and and lighter particles like p, n, d.

Therefore, the photon that forms light is not the only energy (E) derived from nuclear reactions or radioactive decay but also from substantial other forms of energy.

To describe nuclear reactions. Ordinary lighter particles are often abbreviated as,

• p for protons,
• n for neutrons,
• d for the deuteron,

• α represents an alpha particle or helium-4,
• β for beta particles or electrons,
• γ for gamma photons etc

Gamma photons are the most energetic photons known to us.

Conclusion:

Nuclear reactions and radioactive decay can produce various forms of energy, including alpha particles (helium-4), beta particles (electrons), and gamma photons, in addition to other particles like protons and neutrons.

The famous equation E=mc^2, proposed by Albert Einstein, represents the equivalence between mass and energy and can be applied to these various forms of energy produced in nuclear reactions.

Gamma photons are the highest-energy photons known to us, and they play a significant role in nuclear processes due to their ability to carry away excess energy from atomic nuclei.

This understanding is fundamental in the field of nuclear physics and has important applications in areas such as nuclear energy andw medicine.

Above description of the abbreviations used to represent these particles in nuclear reactions is accurate and widely used in the field for convenience and clarity.

#Nuclearenergy #energyforms #alpha #beta #gamma

The digital information and data available in computing and communicating machines is in the form of photon energy (hf)?:

A photon is a gauge boson, a carrier of electromagnetic force. Therefore, the energy of any electromagnetic wave is driven only by photon energy. As information is carried by photons—information transmitted through electromagnetic communication, observed redshifts or blueshifts, and spectra—all carry different information.

The use of redshift and blueshift or radial velocity to study dynamic objects such as binary stars orbiting each other, the rotation of galaxies, the motion of galaxies in clusters, and even the motion of stars within our galaxy. The use of spectroscopy also provides a precise analytical method for finding elements with unknown chemical compositions. In a typical spectroscopic analysis, the concentration of a few parts per million of a trace element in an element can be detected by its emission spectrum.

The phase shift of the wave frequency helps us to determine the wave energy, time distortion as well as speed and the gravitational potential difference of the observed object. 

Only photons carry all these informations.

Clarification:

Photons and Electromagnetic Waves: Photons are indeed associated with electromagnetic waves, as they are the quanta of electromagnetic radiation. However, digital information in computing and communication systems is not stored or transmitted directly in the form of individual photons. Instead, it is encoded and transmitted as variations in electromagnetic fields, such as voltage levels in electrical circuits (for digital computing) or modulated carrier waves (for communication systems).

Information Encoding: In digital systems, information is typically encoded in binary format, represented by bits (0s and 1s). These bits are represented by variations in voltage or current levels in digital circuits. In communication systems, information is modulated onto electromagnetic carrier waves, and this modulation represents the data being transmitted.

Redshift and Blueshift: Redshift and blueshift are phenomena observed in the spectra of objects in motion relative to an observer. They are related to the Doppler effect, where the frequency (and thus energy) of electromagnetic waves changes as a result of relative motion. While these phenomena are used in various fields, including astrophysics, to determine the motion and properties of distant objects, they are not directly related to the storage or transmission of digital information.

Spectroscopy: Spectroscopy is indeed a powerful tool for analyzing the composition of matter based on the interaction of matter with electromagnetic radiation. It is used in various scientific and industrial applications to identify elements, compounds, and their concentrations. However, spectroscopy is primarily a technique for chemical and physical analysis and does not relate directly to the storage or transmission of digital information.

Phase Shift and Wave Properties: Phase shifts in electromagnetic waves can provide valuable information about the properties of the medium they are passing through or the objects they interact with. However, this is often used in scientific measurements and remote sensing applications, not in the context of encoding or transmitting digital information.

While photons are fundamental to electromagnetic radiation, digital information in computing and communication systems is encoded differently and does not rely on the individual properties of photons. Photons are important in various scientific and technological contexts, but their role in information technology is more indirect, related to the principles of optics and the behavior of electromagnetic waves. Digital information is typically encoded and processed using electronic circuits and modulation techniques that do not directly involve individual photons.

#Information #Transmission #Photon

Involvement of light energy photon in photosynthesis:

The process of photosynthesis is commonly written as: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂. 

This means that the reactants, six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules, are converted by light energy captured by chlorophyll (implied by the arrow '→' ) into a sugar molecule and six oxygen molecules, the products.

The photon (hf) causes an electron (e) in the chlorophyll to become 'excited' (Ee + Δhf) where Δhf absoption loss. A photon of light energy (hf) travels until it reaches a molecule of chlorophyll. The energy (hf) given to the electron (e) allows it to break free from an atom of the chlorophyll molecule. 

However, the photon energy (hf) does not convert into mass (m) in the process of photosynthesis but photon energy (hf) given to the electron (e) allows it to break free from an atom of the chlorophyll. 

Clarification:

Absorption of Photons by Chlorophyll: In photosynthesis, chlorophyll molecules in chloroplasts absorb photons of light energy. This absorption is a key step in the process. When a photon is absorbed by a chlorophyll molecule, it energizes one of the molecule's electrons, causing it to move to a higher energy state. This is often described as the electron becoming "excited."

Excited Electron and Energy Transfer: The energy from the absorbed photon (hf) is transferred to an electron within the chlorophyll molecule, promoting it to a higher energy level (Ee + hf). This energized electron can then participate in various chemical reactions within the chloroplast to ultimately drive the process of photosynthesis.

Electron Transport Chain: The excited electrons move through a series of proteins and molecules in what's known as the electron transport chain. As these electrons move through this chain, they release energy (hf - Δhf) where Δhf absoption loss, which is used to pump protons across a membrane, creating a proton gradient. This gradient is essential for the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a molecule that stores energy and is used in various cellular processes, including photosynthesis.

Oxygen Production: While the primary purpose of photosynthesis is to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), oxygen (O₂) is also produced as a byproduct when water molecules are split during the light-dependent reactions. This oxygen release is essential for many organisms, including humans, as it contributes to the oxygen content in the atmosphere.

Mass-Energy Equivalence: It's important to note that during the process of photosynthesis, there is no conversion of photon energy (hf) into mass (m). The photon energy is converted into chemical energy stored in molecules like ATP and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), which are used to power the synthesis of glucose and other organic compounds.

Therefore, the photons of light energy absorbed by chlorophyll molecules play a crucial role in initiating photosynthesis. The energy from these photons is used to energize electrons, which are then involved in various chemical reactions that ultimately result in the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen, without any conversion into mass. The energy transformations in photosynthesis are in accordance with the principles of mass-energy equivalence and conservation of energy.

#photosynthesis #PhotonEnergy