The Big Bang nucleosynthesis: The first 20 minutes, timeline & chronology of the Universe.

The Big Bang nucleosynthesis:

One may get a fair idea on how the Universe came into being from nothing from the Big Bang nucleosynthesis of the Universe. The nuclear reactions in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Nucleosynthesis is the formation of new atomic nuclei, the centres of atoms that are made up of protons and neutrons. The first nuclei were formed a few minutes after the Big Bang, a quark-gluon plasma, a soup of particles known as quarks and gluons, condensed into protons and neutrons, further process formed new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons i.e. protons and neutrons, and nuclei.

Similarity:

Evidence of nucleosynthesis in other stars has been discovered in S-Type stars by Merrill (1952). Nucleosynthesis in main sequence stars involves fusion of 4 Hydrogen nuclei into Helium (He4 or α-particle) through a chain of reactions called the Proton-Proton chain (as first discovered by Hans Bethe in 1939). Stellar nucleosynthesis is the nuclear process by which new nuclei are produced. It occurs in stars during stellar evolution. It is responsible for the galactic abundances of elements from carbon to iron. The synthesis of the naturally occurring elements and their isotopes present in the Solar System solids may be divided into three broad segments: primordial nucleosynthesis (H, He), energetic particle (cosmic ray) interactions (Li, Be, B), and stellar nucleosynthesis (C and heavier elements).

The timeline of the early universe:

The timeline of the early universe outlines the formation and subsequent evolution of the Universe from the Big Bang (13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago) to the present day. An epoch is a moment in time from which nature or situations change to such a degree that it marks the beginning of a new era or age.

The chronology of the universe:

The chronology of the universe describes the history and future of the universe according to Big Bang cosmology. The earliest stages of the universe's existence are estimated as taking place 13.8 billion years ago, with an uncertainty of around 21 million years at the 68% confidence level.

 

The first 20 minutes:

• Planck epoch - the Planck epoch or Planck era is the earliest stage of the Big Bang, before the time passed was equal to the Planck time, tP, or approximately 10^−43 seconds. It is generally assumed that quantum effects of gravity dominate physical interactions at this time scale.

• Grand unification epoch - The Grand Unification Epoch took place from 10^-43 seconds to 10^-36 seconds after our universe was born. During this period, three of the four fundamental interactions—electromagnetism, the strong interaction, and the weak interaction—were unified as the electronuclear force. Gravity had separated from the electronuclear force at the end of the Planck era. The strong force separated from the other fundamental forces.

• Electroweak epoch - The quark epoch ended when the universe was about 10^−6 seconds old. The electroweak interaction is a fundamental force representing unification of the electromagnetic and weak nuclear interactions. The work of three physicists, Glashow, Weinberg, and Salam, showed that the electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces can be understood as a single interaction.

• Quark epoch - The quark epoch ended when the universe was about 10^−6 seconds old, when the average energy of particle interactions had fallen below the binding energy of hadrons. During the quark epoch the universe was filled with dense, hot quark–gluon plasma, containing quarks, leptons and their antiparticles.

• Hadron epoch - The Hadron epoch started 20 microseconds after the Big Bang and lasted from 10^-6 seconds until one second. The universe was now around 1 trillion degrees which allowed quarks to combine and form hadrons. Hadrons are subatomic particles made up of quarks, anti-quarks, and gluons. There are two categories of known hadrons: baryons and mesons. Most of the hadrons and anti-hadrons were eliminated in annihilation reactions, leaving a small residue of hadrons. Upon elimination of anti-hadrons, the Universe was dominated by photons, neutrinos and electron-positron pairs.

• Lepton epoch - The Lepton epoch commencing about 10^−5 s after the Big Bang, in which the various kinds of lepton were the main contributors to the density of the Universe.

• Photon epoch - The photon epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe in which photons dominated the energy of the universe.

Matter era:

The period in the evolution of the universe, beginning roughly 105 years after the big bang, when the universe had cooled to the point at which electrons and protons were able to form neutral hydrogen atoms, and continuing to the present time, during which matter, in the form of atoms, is dominant over radiation.

• Cosmic Dark Age - The cosmic dark ages were a time when the universe was enveloped by a fog of neutral hydrogen that trapped the light of the first stars and galaxies. The fog didn't lift until 1 billion years after the Big Bang, when the neutral hydrogen had been re-ionized and once again split apart.

• Galaxy epoch - From 370,000 years until about 1 billion years. After recombination and decoupling, the universe was transparent but the clouds of hydrogen only collapsed very slowly to form stars and galaxies, so there were no new sources of light,  large galaxies were formed through a rapid gravitational collapse that would have resulted in huge bursts of star formation at early epochs, leaving behind galaxies that had rapidly exhausted their fuel to age quiescently until the present; these galaxies appear now as large collections of old, red stars, such as elliptical galaxies and the central bulges of spiral galaxies.

• Acceleration - Dark-energy dominated era begins, following the matter-dominated era during which cosmic expansion was slowing down.  Messier 67 open star cluster forms. Three exoplanets confirmed orbiting stars in the cluster including a twin of our Sun. Lalande 21185, red dwarf in Ursa Major, forms. Proxima Centauri forms completing the Alpha Centauri trinary system.

Epochs of the formation of the solar system:

9.2318 billion years, Sun forms - Planetary nebula begins accretion of planets. 9.257 billion years, Solar System of Eight planets, four terrestrial Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars evolve around the sun.

 

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Universal Singularity, is it nothing to us?

Nothing is absence of something. And something as we know can only exist within our three dimensional real world.

So anything that exists extra-dimensional  - location originating outside the known physical reality of the Universe - cannot be a part of our three dimensional real world so that we can never establish such existence though the known laws of physics applicable to our real world.

Moreover, such extra-dimensional existence; without events - space and time (we know) would cease to exist - and such universal singularity would be a meaningless proposition to us, where all known fundamental interactions - weak and strong interactions, electromagnetism - were united into one – gravity.

Therefore, such imperceptible something is beyond our real senses, rather nothing to us. No known laws of physics can establish them as real something, except in mathematical concept. 

Read more here

#universalsingularity

If an object has momentum without mass is only possible if this is a wave:

Einstein's general equation derived from the relativistic definitions of the energy and momentum of a particle:

• E²=p²c²+m²c⁴.

Where E is the total energy of the particle, p is the momentum of the particle, c is the speed of light, and m is the mass of the particle.

When a particle is at rest i.e. p=0 then this equation reduces down to:

• E=mc²; (p=0)

But When a particle with no mass i.e. m=0, the equation reduces to:

• E=pc; (m=0)

Since photons have no mass and therefore get all of their energy from their momentum, so they must follow: E=pc; If an object has momentum without mass is only possible if this is a wave. A wave transports momentum via its waving motion and not by physically transporting an object with mass.

Moreover, if a particle has no mass and is at rest then its total energy is zero:

• E=0; (m=0) & (p = 0)

Conclusion a particle with no mass and is at rest is nothing at all since it has no energy.

Therefore, if an object with no mass is to physically exist, it can never be at rest but must always travel at the universal speed limit c; such is the case with light. Light consisting of photons and photons don't have rest mass but momentum and energy. Momentum is the directional property of an object in motion that describes its ability to influence another object upon impact.

In addition to that, if the object travels less than the universal speed limit c, say, at some speed v then we can always choose a reference frame travelling along with the object so that the object will be at rest in this reference frame.

Philosophy and Science – about similarities and dissimilarities in brief:

Philosophy is the study of the basic ideas about knowledge, right and wrong, reasoning, and the value of things. The study of philosophy helps us to enhance our ability to solve problems, our communication skills, our persuasive powers, while science is valued by society because the application of scientific knowledge helps to satisfy many basic human needs and improve living standards. Finding a cure for cancer and a clean form of energy are just two topical examples. The main similarity between philosophy and science is that they both try to find out about reality, so good philosophers certainly use scientists or their tool e.g. verifying and falsifying claims in physical reality, trying to be coherent, adding up probabilities, etc. Complementary to its role in conceptual clarification, philosophy can contribute to the critique of scientific assumptions, and can even be proactive in formulating novel, testable, and predictive theories that help set new paths for empirical research.

However, Philosophy is not science, for it employs the rational tools of logical analysis and conceptual clarification in lieu of empirical measurement as required in science, this approach, when carefully carried out, can yield knowledge at times more reliable and enduring than science. The main difference between philosophy and science is in the way they work and treat knowledge. Science is concerned with natural phenomena, while philosophy attempts to understand the nature of man, existence, and the relationship that exists between the two concepts. Philosophy does this by using logical argumentation, while science utilizes empirical data.

The Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose of science? It is concerned with all the assumptions, foundations, methods, implications of science, and with the use and merit of science. This discipline sometimes overlaps metaphysics, ontology and epistemology, viz., when it explores whether scientific results comprise a study of truth. The scientific method in philosophy is limited only in response to questions about human existence while the scientific method in science encompasses all questions about matter. Complementary to its role in conceptual clarification, philosophy can contribute to the critique of scientific assumptions, and can even be proactive in formulating novel, testable, and predictive theories that help set new paths for empirical research.

.... obtained from various sources. 

Acceptance & Contradictions regarding Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity:

Mass-energy equivalence: 

Acceptance - mass is concentrated energy as in the equation E∝m. This is good to hold that mass equivalents frequency as Max Planck postulated energy is proportional to the frequency E∝f.

Space and time incompatibility - space-time is a mathematical model that joins space and time into a single idea called a continuum: 

Contradiction; space cannot be in alliance with time because of it’s dimensional restriction and confliction with time; expendability of space and uniformity in the scale of time make them incompatible for coexisting; space interacts with dark energy but time does not interact with anything; space is natural and time is concept; events in the existence invoke time.

Space is the boundless three dimensional extent of height, depth, and width within which all things exist and move and the events have relative position in it, a three dimensional reality. Whereas, time is the indefinite continued progress of existence and events in the past, present, and future regarded as a whole; occurs in irreversible succession; dimension of time is referred as the fourth dimension; the duration of any change.

Relative time - The rate at which time passes depends on your frame of reference:

Contradiction; time depending upon one's frame of reference considers a specific event and ignores rest of the events in the Universe happening at that time, so it conveys a relative time specific to an event and such relative time cannot be the original time as in the concept. Relative time considered here is not relative to universal frame of reference but in respect of its relative frame of reference, such relative time is not as the original concept of time, time relative to universal frame of reference would only depend on all the specific events occurring at that point of time and past and future included in it.    

Absurdity in fast moving object ageing less - the faster a clock moves, the slower time passes according to someone in a different frame of reference:

Contradiction; a clock cannot move faster or slower unless it is a defective clock, though making an absolute clock is impossible within three dimensional space and in presence of gravity, however, the conceptual time needs to be in uniformed scale - without the influence of gravity on it and considered above three dimensional space. Slower time and ageing less is a defective consideration and against the characteristic of time.

Error and illegality in time dilation  - Time dilation is the phenomenon of time passing slower for an observer who is moving relative to another observer, the faster one travels the slower he experiences time:

Contradiction: Representing time dilation with respect to mass-gravity interaction not only violate frequency-gravity interaction as in Planks' energy-frequency relationship, frequency being related to time, such representation also improperly distort the characteristic of time, time being without frequency, and, there is no valid law that can embed time with mass or time with space unless, its is an arbitrary abstraction. Gravity will apply a mechanical stress to the fast moving body affecting its frequency; hence longer wavelength, so the fast moving clock will be slightly behind the clock on the ground. Such difference in the elapsed time is due to the mechanical stress to the fast moving body invoking a relative time, and not absolute time. Time is ticking at a constant rate for the entire universe and everything in it.

- Soumendra Nath Thakur

   27th July 2021

Link https://bit.ly/3rz3xI4