Where is the space expanding faster than the speed of light?

The answer to the question is that, the limitation in the speed of light is applicable within a gravitationally bound system - definitely within a galaxy (up to the zero-gravity sphere around it, or within clusters or super cluster or mega clusters of galaxies respectively,

Only the space beyond that is dominated by Dark Energy that expands the space. Generally, intergalactic space expands but not within a galaxy.

However, space is not expanding faster than light everywhere; only after certain distance towards the edge of the universe space can expand faster than light, the space before that in slower than the speed of light.

When you are seeing a distant galaxy, you are actually seeing its light year travelled distance but at the time of your observation that galaxy might have changed its location to a new location known as its proper distance.

So a general understanding is that when the galaxy's proper distance is greater than the light year travelled distance then only the galaxy is considered to be receding faster than light speed, not before that.

#ExpansionOfSpace #fasterthanlight

The time of the GPS satellite's clock oscillator is affected by the wavelength enlargement, not by the time dilation:

Gravity and electromagnetism are two of the four fundamental forces, out of the four fundamental forces. There are many similarities between electromagnetic (EM) radiation and gravitational radiation - both travel at the speed of light; both carry energy away from their sources; both consist of transverse waves with two polarizations. The main difference between gravity and electromagnetism is that gravity is a force between masses whereas electromagnetism is a force between charges. 

Gravity acts on mass and also acts on all forms of energy and thus acts on all subatomic particles, including the gauge bosons that carry the forces e.g. photon. Electromagnetism acts on electric charge. The electromagnetic field carries energy, contains momentum, so it will produce a gravitational field of its own. This gravitational field, produced by charge or magnet, is in addition to gravitational field produced by the matter mass. 

The gravitational redshift or redshifting of the photon climbing farther away from a gravitational well, the bending of a photon's path by the gravity of massive objects, the drifting of a small amount of time in the atomic clock on the ground, and faster running of the GPS clocks in space are due to the effects of gravity and examples of interactions between gravitational and electromagnetic fields.

• Planck's Equation: E = hf. 

Photon energy is the energy carried by a single photon. The energy of the photon depends on its frequency. The higher the frequency, the more energy the photon has. The amount of energy is directly proportional to the photon's electromagnetic frequency (E ∝ f) and so inversely proportional to the wavelength (E ∝ 1/λ). 

In Einstein's general theory of relativity, there is an effect known as "gravitational redshift," in which photon becomes redder because of the influence of gravity; the wavelength (λ) of a photon gets longer and appears redder as the wavelength climbs farther away from a gravitational well. As it becomes red-shifted, it's wavelength becomes larger so it's energy becomes smaller (λ ∝ 1/E).

• E = hf = h(c/λ) = h(1/T).     

The number of vibrations (cycles) per second is frequency (f) and the time taken to complete one vibration (cycle) is called time period (T), wavelength (λ) is just the distance between two identical points in the adjacent cycles of a wave. Whereas, frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) are inversely proportional and so time period (T) and wavelength (λ) are directly proportional.

Electromagnetic frequency (f) ∝ 1/wavelength (1/λ), when c is constant: f = c/λ = 1/T.

• Therefore, λ ∝ T. 

The time interval for 1° of phase is inversely proportional to the frequency. If the frequency of a signal is given by f, then the time T(deg) corresponding to 1° of phase shift is T(deg) = 1/(360f)= T/360. Therefore, a 1° phase shift on a 5 MHz signal or aprox. 59.95 meter wavelength (λ) corresponds to a time shift of 555 picoseconds.

• Since,  λ ∝ 1/f ∝ T.

  1° phase shift for a 59.95 m wavelength (λ), f (5 MHz), time shifts (time delays ΔT) aprox. 555 ps.

 90° phase shift " " time shifts (time delays ΔT) aprox. 50000 ps.

360° phase shift " f (5 MHz - 1 Hz) time shifts (time delays ΔT) aprox. 200000 ps. 

A 360° phase shift means a complete cycle of the wave, so from the above calculation, we can say that a 360° phase shift or a complete cycle of a 5 MHz wave takes 200000 ps (0.0000002 s) to complete one cycle (1 Hz). 

The caesium-133 atom used in atomic clocks vibrates at frequencies 9192631770 Hz on the ground and the GPS satellite clock advances faster than a clock on the ground by about 38 microseconds per day.

(i) For 1° phase shift of a 9192631770 Hz wave time shifts (time delays ΔT) aprox. 0.0000000003021743769660185 ms on the ground i.e. time shifts in a day 0.00002610786616986399 ms on the ground.

Time shift of the caesium-133 atomic clock above the ground: 

(ii) For 360° phase shift or, 1 complete cycle (1 Hz), of a 9192631770 Hz wave; aprox. 0.00000010878277570776666 ms time is taken i.e. time shifts in a day 0.00000010878277570776666 ms.

Time shift of the caesium-133 atomic clock in the GPS satellite in space:

(iii) For 1455.50003025° phase shift (or, 4.043055639583333 cycles) of a 9192631770 Hz wave 0.0000004398148148148148 ms time is taken (or, 0.038 miliseconds time is taken per day, or, 38 microseconds  time is taken per day.)

Lesser acting gravitational force on GPS Sattelite:

Mechanical oscillators are harmonic oscillators use balance wheels or pendulums resonance, preferred at a certain rate.

Crystal oscillators use mechanical resonance of vibrating crystals of piezoelectric material and create electrical signal with a constant frequency.

However, atomic oscillators’ mechanisms are based on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation in excited states of certain atoms, used as constant frequency.

Irrespective of the type of the oscillators used in a clock for time keeping, herein specifically known as a body, are made up of either certain atomic and/or certain molecular particles.
Such a body in acceleration and in gravitational potential experiences less weight due to the experience of less gravitational force per unit mass of that body in lesser gravitational potential. Accordingly gravity exerts less force on the body and to the neighbouring particles within the continuous internal material of such a body; this causes less mechanical stress to any oscillating particles within that body causing their lesser frequency or enlarged wavelength of the oscillator. 

Therefore an accelerating body or a body in gravitational potential shall experience lesser frequency or enlarged wavelength of the oscillator.

#GPSsatellite #time #timedilation #wavelengthdilation

Planck's equation invalidates time dilation:

Planck's energy-frequency equivalence equation E= hf = h(1/t) = h*c/λ.

Since, h(1/t) = h*c/λ.

          Or, 1/t = c/λ.

          Or, λ ∝ t (when, c is constant) 

However, 'λ,' being electromagnetic wavelength of the frequency 'f,' is real entity when, 't,' being conceptual, is unreal entity. 

So that such an unreal entity called time (t) can never participate in a real interactions with any existential events because of the rule of mathematics and science, but such an wavelength (λ) can freely participate in real eventual interactions, unlike time. 

Therefore, the eventual influences such as speed, or gravitational potential, can well interact with the wavelength (λ) of any material body or electromagnetic wave either in such speed or in varied gravitational potential. 

E.g. a material body would experience stress whereas, an electromagnetic wave would directly interact with such influence of speed or gravity - resulting lowered frequency of respective oscillations. This makes the "wavelength dilation" of the body or wave that results respective values of t, due to the dilated wavelength in respective oscillations. 

However, the experimenters confirming time dilation made the fundamental mistake in calculating time (t) as an influenced subject in their considerations, instead of calculating wavelength (λ) as the subject in their calculations, obviously they were more influenced by Albert Einstein than being influenced by the rules and methods of mathematics or science. 

Max Planck predates Albert Einstein but Einstein seems to disregarded Max Planck while proposing time dilation to the world.

#MaxPlanck #PlanckEquation #TimeDilation #WavelengthDilation

Frequency and Time relation

The time interval for 1° of phase is inversely proportional to the frequency. If the frequency of a signal is given by f, then the time t_deg (in seconds) corresponding to 1° of phase is t_deg = 1 / (360f) = T / 360. 

Therefore, a 1° phase shift on a 5 MHz signal corresponds to a time shift of 555 picoseconds.

The wavelength (λ) of that mass-energy wave is directly proportional to the time period (T) of the wave derives the equation λ∝T, we get the wave corresponds to time shift, e.g. 1° phase shift on a 5 MHz wave corresponds to a time shift of 555 picoseconds. 

• t=1/f.
  f = 5000000 Hz; 1° phase shift = t/360.
  t_deg = (1/f)/360 = (1/5000000)/360
  = (5.55x10^-10) = 555 Picosecond.
  

This, one can experimentally observe in an electronic laboratory while measuring gravitational effect on piezoelectric crystals. This is called wavelength dilation - when gravitational effect is less.

How does frequency change with time?

Three possibilities in the future of the Universe. .

Big Rip - dark energy increasing, an ultimate expansion of the universe to the extent that the particles and space and time of which it consists are torn apart. 

Constant Dark Energy - as space expands, the dark energy density remains constant, rather than decreasing or increasing. As a result, after the Universe has expanded for long enough, dark energy comes to dominate the energy budget of the Universe.

Big Crunch - Dark energy decreasing, gravity takes over - a contraction of the universe to a state of extremely high density and temperature (a hypothetical opposite of the Big Bang).

                                                                 * * * * * * * 

Soviet mathematician Alexander Friedmann's model gave rise to three different types of models for the evolution of the Universe.

First, the Universe would expand for a given amount of time, and if the expansion rate is less than the density of the Universe (leading to gravitational attraction), it would ultimately lead to the collapse of the Universe at a later stage.

Secondly, the Universe would expand, and at some time, if the expansion rate and the density of the Universe became equal, it would expand slowly and stop, leading to a somewhat static Universe.

Thirdly, the Universe would continue to expand forever, if the density of the Universe is less than the critical amount required to balance the expansion rate of the Universe.

#BigRip #ConstantDarkEnergy #BigCrunch #AlexanderFriedmann

The tug of war between gravity and dark energy:

The energy from the Big Bang drove the universe's early expansion. Since then, gravity and dark energy have engaged in a cosmic tug of war.

Gravity pulls galaxies closer together; dark energy pushes them apart. Whether the universe is expanding or contracting depends on which force dominates, gravity or dark energy

 

 

#gravity #darkenergy

Dark energy highly affects the structure of large cluster of galaxy:

“Gravity dominates at distances, while antigravity is stronger than gravity; therefore, a gravitationally bound system with its mass can exist only inside the zero gravity sphere of its radius. Whereas, dark energy is effective in the outer region of the domination of gravitating mass and practically have no effect within the strong domination of gravitating mass. 

The density of dark energy is high enough to affect the structure of a large rich cluster of galaxy-as a gravitationally bound physical system embedded in the perfectly uniform static dark energy background. The antigravity of dark energy affects strongly a cosmic structure at large scale. 

The dark energy background produces antigravity which is stronger than the matter gravity in the present Universe as a whole. This makes the cosmological expansion accelerated. The cosmic antigravity can be stronger than gravity not only globally, but also locally on the scale of ~3.26 - 32.63 mega-lightyear (~1 – 10 Mpc).

The local weakfield dynamical effects of dark energy adequately described in term of Newtonian mechanics, and its effective gravitating density is negative, producing antigravity.”

 

#DarkEnergy #AntiGravity #ClusterOfGalaxy #Expansion

 

Credit: Source

The youngest and most distant known galaxy - it's light travel distance and present proper distance.

HD1 is a purported high red-shift galaxy, and as of April 2022, it is considered to be the earliest, youngest and most distant known galaxy yet identified in the observable universe, located only about (330 million years) after the Big Bang (13.8 billion years ago), a light-travel distance of 13.5 billion light-years from Earth, and, due to the expansion of the universe, a present proper distance of 33.4 billion light-years.


[NOTE: Co-moving distance and proper distance are two closely related distance measures used by cosmologists to define distances between objects. Proper distance roughly corresponds to where a distant object would be at a specific moment of cosmological time, which can change over time due to the expansion of the universe. Co-moving distance factors out the expansion of the universe, giving a distance that does not change in time due to the expansion of space (though this may change due to other, local factors, such as the motion of a galaxy within a cluster]

 

#HD1 #LightTravelDistance #ProperDistance

 

The space, time and the existential universe are seperate considerations: The space-time concept invalid.

The expression, "expansion of space" would mean the expansion of space against time, even if time is not mentioned there.

Another expression, "expansion of the universe" would mean, expansion of the existential universe, against time, occupying three dimensional space.

However, the expansion rate of said existential universe is not likely to be the same rate of expansion as of space, because of the reason that space is dragging out the existential universe along with it by some mysterious force. The rigidity of the existential universe likely to counteract against said dragging of space, as a consequence, respective rates of expansion between space and existential universe likely to be different for same said reason. 

Whatsoever, said expansions of both - space and material universe - conveys their expansions only against time. 

Therefore, time cannot be an embedded part, either of the space or material universe; for the reason time is concept, devised to track or witness such expansions, and events, when space and material universe are tracked or witnessed by time, as if, time acts like an umpire, and space, existential universe act like the players. 

There is another inconsistency in the concept of space-rime is that, in case of expanding space, or the existential universe, the time, in space-time continuum, unlikely to be in uniformed secession, considering irreversible nature of time. This is undesirable. 

And the accelerated expansion of space would make the space-time idea even worse, and defective, no wonder such defects are very likely when time is preferred to be reversible or modifiable against the normal secession of time, and even time being a concept. 

There is no reasonably to consider and accept space and time as a space-time continuum, as in general relativity of Einstein. 

• Einstein preferred time to be reversible or modifiable, against the normal secession of time.
• Space, Universe - their expansions only against time, even if time is not mentioned.
• Space-time continuum results inconsistency, un-uniformed secession of time, undesirable.
• Accelerated expansion of space would make time even worse in space-time continuum.
• Time is a concept, devised to track expansions and events, so cannot be embedded with space.

- Soumendra Nath Thakur 19-Apr-2022

#spacetime #spacetimecontinuum #space #time #expansion #expansionofspace

Testing time, in Einstein's space-time, applied in intergalactic space - dominated by mysterious force over gravity.

The expansion of space means the expansion of space against time, even if time is not mentioned there, and expansion of the universe would mean, expansion of the material universe, against time, occupying three dimensional space. 

 

However, the expansion rate of said existential universe is not likely to be the same rate of expansion as of space, because of the reason that space is dragging out the existential universe along with it by some mysterious force.

 

The rigidity of the existential universe likely to counteract against said dragging of space, as a consequence, respective rates of expansion between space and existential universe likely to be different for same said reason. 

 

Whatever, said expansions of both - space and material universe - conveys their expansions only against time. Therefore, time cannot be an embedded part, either of the space or material universe; for the reason time is a concept, devised to track or witness such expansions, and events, when space and material universe are tracked or witnessed by time, as if, time acts like an umpire, and space, existential universe act like the players. 

 

There is another inconsistency in the concept of space-time is that, in case of expanding space, or the existential universe, the time, in space-time continuum, unlikely to be in uniformed secession, considering irreversible nature of time. This is undesirable. And the accelerated expansion of space would make the space-rime idea even worse, and defective, no wonder such defects are very likely when time is preferred to be reversible or modifiable against the normal secession of time, and even time being a concept. 

 

There is no reasonably to consider and accept space and time as a space-time continuum, as in general relativity of Einstein.

Where expansion of space is relevant and where not:

Better way to say that the Universe is expanding only within intergalactic space, that too beyond the zero gravity spheres around the galaxies relevant, but such intergalactic space may not mean the gravitationally bound cluster or super cluster of galaxies - where there is considerable influence of gravity. 

Our Galaxy, Milky Way, is gravitationally bound with Andromeda galaxy, these galaxies belong to Virgo Cluster. Therefore, the space between these galaxies, since gravitationally bound, may not follow the same nature in expansion as in other intergalactic space - not gravitationally bound.

 

#expnasionofspace #expansion

 

The Universe and the nature of its expansions:

Our Universe began forming in its location of the origin at the Big Bang event 13.8 billion years ago; - space began, expanded through inflation, accordingly time needed to begin its uniformed succession in the primordial existence of said event. The universe grew from an almost infinitely small point to nearly an octillion times in size called Cosmic inflation - a faster than light expansion of the universe that spawned the primordial existence, following this universe continued to expand at a slower rate. The acceleration of this expansion began after the universe was already over 7.7 to 9.8 billion years old, called metric expansion of the space. The current rate of expansion of the universal space is between 66 and 74 km/s/Mpc (kilometers per second per mega-parsec.)

1.   Therefore, there is no centre of the current universe; as it was left at the location of its origin.

2.   Gravity does not have influence within the intergalactic space, at least, in intergalactic scale, specifically ruled by some mysterious influence.

3.   The distant galaxies observed to be surrounded by zero-gravity spheres within specific intergalactic space.

4.   The accelerated expansion of the intergalactic space recede the distant galaxies due to said mysterious influence.

5.   The galaxies at the edge of the visible universe observed to be receding faster than the light speed. Those galaxies are entering into invisible universe, so that light cannot reach us from such distance.

6.   The space, within the gravitationally bound cluster or super cluster of galaxies, does not expand.

7.   Some non-luminous non-interacting material appears to make up most of the mass of galaxies and galaxy clusters. 

 

#TheUniverse #Universe #MetricExpansion #Expansion #Inflation #VisibleUniverse #BigBang

Fundamental interactions - Interaction between Gravity and Electromagnetism: (1-6)

1.    Fundamental interactions are irreducible forces those act between the elementary particles composing all matter. There are four fundamental forces in the universe - the strong force, the weak force, the electromagnetic force, and the gravitational force. They work over different ranges and have different strengths. The strong nuclear force is the strongest and gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental forces of nature, but gravity has a far reaching range.  

2.     The elementary particles are fundamental particle or subatomic particle those are not composed of other particles. The three basic types of known elementary particles are leptons, quarks and gauge bosons. The leptons type subatomic particle are electron, muon, or neutrino, they do not take part in the strong interaction. A quark is a fast-moving point of energy. The quarks make up an atom's nucleus, viz. protons and neutrons, each proton and neutron contains three quarks respectively. There are six types of quarks up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom.

3.    The gauge bosons are carrier particles for three of the four fundamental forces. A gauge boson is a bosonic elementary particle that acts as the force carrier for elementary fermions. Elementary particles, whose interactions are described by a gauge theory, interact with each other by the exchange of gauge bosons, usually as virtual particles. There are four kinds of gauge bosons. W and Z bosons, which carry the weak force. Gluons, which carry the strong force. Photons, which carry the electromagnetic force.

4.    A photon is an example of a boson as it has a spin of 1 and carries electromagnetism. A photon is an elementary particle representing a quantum of light or other electromagnetic radiation viz. radio waves, known as the quantum of the electromagnetic food. A photon carries the electromagnetic energy proportional to the radiation frequency but has zero rest mass.

5.     Gravity and electromagnetism are two of the four fundamental forces, out of the four fundamental forces. There are many similarities between electromagnetic (EM) radiation and gravitational radiation - both travel at the speed of light; both carry energy away from their sources; both consist of transverse waves with two polarizations. The main difference between gravity and electromagnetism is that gravity is a force between masses whereas electromagnetism is a force between charges.

6.    A photon (electromagnetic radiation) interacts with gravitational radiation and carry away energy from their respective sources.

#FundamentalInteractions #ElementaryParticles #Gravity #Electromagnetism #Photon

Bending of travelling path of a photon or spacecraft.

Summary: A photon exchanges momentum as it bypasses a large gravitational well during transit. The photon experiences a change in momentum and its path is bent as it interacts with the gravitational field. A photon simultaneously gains and loses momentum (p) from a gravitational interaction with a massive object. However, a photon maintains its relative path with speed c and covers the same distance (d) as compared to its constant speed. The curvature of the photon's path is understood in terms of the exchange of momentum experienced by the photon.

Relevant equations: p = E/c, constant = c = 299792458 m/s, distance = (speed x time) = (c m/s * s)

Bending of the travelling path of a body when its speed is unchanged: - photon, spacecraft:

The bending of photon's path is due to it's constant speed @c but it's increased energy and frequency corresponding to the increased gravitational influence on it. 

Since photons speed is constant, an incremental change in it's energy and/or frequency makes the photon change it's path bent. 

It's like gravity assist (sling shot) by a massive planetary body to a bypassing spacecraft in a condition when the speed of the spacecraft remains unchanged but its path bends as its kinetic energy increases.

What happens in the background:

When the photon maintains a constant speed @c, and increases its Energy, it is bound to increase its frequency too. Such increased frequency, at its constant speed, does not allow the photon to maintain a straight path anymore, as the gained frequency deviates the photon path from its apparent straight path to a bent path until the the photon reaches its earlier frequency.

The gain of its energy is temporary - temporarily synchronised. Photon frequency synchronised with gravitational field - transfers energy to the photon.

The Planck's Equation: E=hf ----> E'=hf'  when E'>E (Temporary).
So (E'-E) deviates the path of the photon and bends, since the photon cannot increase it's constant speed, it bends.

Note: The momentum of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength. Photons momentum is given by p=hλ, where λ is the photon wavelength. Photon energy and momentum are related by p=Ec , where E=hf=hcλ for a photon

#gravityassist #slingshot #increadedenergy #increasedfrequency

The Universe (13.8 billion years) - unobservable (23 trillion ly.) and observable (46.5 billion ly.)

Beyond the visible universe, the invisible or the unobservable universe must be at least 23 trillion light years in diameter, and contain a volume of space that's over 15 million times as large as the volume we can observe. So that no signal can travel faster than light, hence there is a maximum distance beyond which nothing can be detected, as the signals could not have reached us yet. 

The visible universe is observable universe and it's physical limit created by the speed of light itself. This means a sphere with a radius of 13.7 billion light years centered around the Earth, and we can only observe 13.7 billion light years of the universe. Because the electromagnetic radiation from these objects has had time to reach the Solar System and Earth since the beginning of the cosmological expansion. The visible universe contains 4.9% ordinary matter (baryonic), 26.8% Dark matter and 68.3% Dark energy. Only five percent (5%) of the universe is visible and its radius is 46.5 billion light years.