02 September 2021

Law of Vibration :

Law of Vibration states that anything that exists in our universe, whether seen or unseen, broken down into and analyzed in it's purest and most basic form, consists of pure energy or light which resonates and exists as a vibratory frequency or pattern.

Nothing rests. Everything moves. Everything vibrates. You and me vibrate within.  At the most fundamental level, the Universe and everything which comprises it is pure vibratory energy manifesting itself in different ways.

The Universe has no 'solidity,' as such. Matter is merely energy in a state of vibration.
 
Energy, as it seems, behaves differently in different dimensions, fundamentally energy appears to be more of vibration or waves, the primordial energy that might have existed before the Big Bang probably did not have events occurring in it so there was no time and space - those we know - were not present then, because time to exists requires existence and events both, we human being and this universe - we know - are three in dimensions, said primordial energy was not in three dimensional, and any energy in more than three dimensions might behave differently, so the answer is "yes", to your question, different form of energy can exist in different dimensions.
 
Propagation of radio wave for spatial communications
Propagation of wave, Frequency (f), f=1/t, f=c/ λ , wave, signal, vibration, oscillation, to and fro, back and forth, swing, shake, ripple, tide, stir, period, hertz (hz), propagation, p, power density, watt per square metre (W/m²), p, p∞(1/r²), radio, electromagnetic, audio, light, video, current (I), time (t, T), velocity (v), Wavelength (λ), Λ , L, lambda, λ=v/f, f=c/ λ. Amplitude (A), angular distance, peak, A= A sin (ω[t-K)+b, equilibrium, Ω, ω, dB, decibel, mill watt, skip zone, transmission, ionosphere, modulation, demodulation, carrier, ground wave, sky wave, radio wave, telecommunication.
 
A radio wave is an electromagnetic wave of a frequency between about 10^4 and 10¹¹ or 10¹² Hz, as used for long-distance communication, generated by a transmitter and then detected by a receiver. An antenna allows a radio transmitter to send energy into space and a receiver to pick up energy from space. Transmitters and receivers are typically designed to operate over a limited range of frequencies. 
 
The basic building block of radio communications is a radio wave. Like waves on a pond, a radio wave is a series of simultaneous periodic variations of electric and magnetic field intensity. The entire pattern of a wave, before it repeats itself, is called a cycle. The wavelength is the distance a wave takes to complete one cycle. The number of cycles, or times that a wave repeats in a second, is called frequency. Frequency is measured in the unit hertz (Hz), referring to a number of cycles per second. One thousand hertz is referred to as a kilohertz (KHz), 1 million hertz as a megahertz (MHz), and 1 billion hertz as a gigahertz (GHz). The range of the radio spectrum is considered to be 3 kilohertz up to 300 gigahertz.
 
However the existence is pure vibration. So energy, matter - inorganic and organic, all are source of vibration. Even cosmic dust and humans are originally vibration formed in a definite state.
 
The energy of each photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the associated EM wave.
 
The vibrational Universe. (f Hz.):
 
Max Planck shown us that the energy equivalents frequency E∝v (nu), (f) in the year 1900, which, according to me, is mightier than any other post laws established during twentieth century.
 
Planck said in 1944, "as a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much:
 
There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together... "
 
Planck's equation E∝f can be applied anywhere in the Universe and even when there is no matter but only energy, (e.g. during the beginning of the Universe where there was no matter) Planck's equation is applied there too. 
 
But relativity cannot be applied there. Only strings can precede Planck's frequency. 
 
As in string theory, there are no elementary particles (like electrons or quarks), but pieces of vibrating strings. Each vibration mode corresponds to a different particle and determines its charge and its mass.The consequences of replacing point like particles by vibrating microscopic strings are enormous.
 
All about vibrations and signals:
 
1. Our body, actually, a community of fifteen trillion energy waves known as cells. 
2. All organisms communicate by energy waves, vibration or signals. 
3. We are, actually, interacting waves. 
4. Your thoughts are not contained in your head but around your head outside.
5.You are, actually, broadcasting thoughts. 
6. Your mind is the central voice and organism is the energy waves known as cells. 
7. Functions of the brain is the representation of signals (energy waves) created in mind (central voice).
 
Interpretation: Space is the playground of vibration, where events take place in timescale. - 13.07.2019
 
Interpretation: Particles in sub-atomic level cannot have a concrete structure, rather sub-atomic particles are results of vibrations, the entire universe is a product of vibrations. Vibration is existence, time become relevant only; when there is event in that existence.
 
The vibration of a system involves the alternating transfer of energy between its potential and kinetic forms. Vibratory systems comprise means for storing potential energy (spring), means for storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia), and means by which the energy is gradually lost (damped). In a damped system, some energy is dissipated at each cycle of vibration and must be replaced from an external source if a steady vibration is to be maintained.
 
The cause of our existence is vibration. If you want to find the secrets of the universe, we have to think in terms of energy - frequency and vibration. So, if we want to understand the nature and evolution of this universe, then we need to understand the fundamental basis of the existence of matter. Necessarily the world is made of matter, but we generally do not focus our attention to the fundamental basis of working of this material world. How the material world was formed. To understand this we need to study the energy code, which is essentially made of frequency or vibration at the fundamental level, all forms of this code are the same.
 
The universe was born as an unimaginably hot, dense point. In a tiny fraction of a second, it experienced an incredible burst of expansion known as inflation, in which space itself expanded faster than the speed of light. During this period, the universe increased in size going from a subatomic-sized to golf-ball-sized almost instantaneously. As space expanded, the universe cooled and matter formed. One second after the universe was filled with neutrons, protons, electrons, anti-electrons, photons and neutrinos.
 
During the first three minutes of the universe, the light elements were born.. Temperatures cooled unimaginably, and protons and neutrons collided to make deuterium. Most of the deuterium combined to make helium, and trace amounts of lithium were also generated.
 
Within the first 380,000 years, the universe was essentially too hot for light to shine. The heat of formation smashed atoms together with enough force to break them up into dense plasma, an opaque soup of protons, neutrons and electrons that scattered light like fog.
 
After 380,000 years, matter cooled enough to form atoms, resulting transparent, electrically neutral gas. However, after this point, the universe was plunged into darkness, since no stars or any other bright objects had formed then.
 
After 400 million years, the universe began to emerge from the cosmic dark ages through re-ionization, clumps of gas collapsed enough to form the first stars and galaxies, whose energetic ultraviolet light ionized and destroyed most of the neutral hydrogen.
 
This is how the material in the universe was formed from vibration to energy to matter and then us.
 
So I answered, "it is questioning like why 1+1=2? such laws are in abstract form, (more like our consciousness) no reasons are necessary for the laws of nature as they can crop up spontaneously in existence, existences likely driven by said laws of nature, and existence is vibration - it is there for the same said laws of nature, existence can reside even if there is no time, or events not occurring - a state called singularity."
 
Our state of mind equates to our vibratory frequency, which is what forms our perception of the material world. By changing our state of mind, we literally change the nature of the material world that we exist in as a part of, both in terms of our physical body and the outer reality we live in. Different 'states' as vibratory frequencies form different levels of reality as a interlaced parallel dimensions that move us along a scale from lower to higher forms of reality and existence.
 
Prior to the formation of the Universe - my interpretation.
A Summery:
Frequency is related to energy (E) as in the Planck's equation E=hν. And, mass is related to energy (E) as in the Einstein's theory of special relativity E=mc². 
 
Therefore, combining these above two equations we get, mass (m) is related to frequency. And since f = c/λ or, c = λf, wavelength λ (Lambda) is inversely proportional to frequency (f) of the wave; whereas (c) is universal constant. 
 
But (c) is applicable where there is existence of light, in absence of light, the universal constant (c) simply becomes irrelevant, so what would happen to the energy (E), and, frequency of such energy, or even the wavelength (λ) of that? 
 
This would be the moot question. 
Through the known equations in physics, mass (m), as in the Einstein's theory of special relativity E=mc², energy (E) is related to frequency as in the Planck's equation E=hν. However, in absence of light, the universal constant (c) becomes irrelevant. 
 
λ = v/f, considering velocity (v) at the speed of light (c), f= c/λ. 
When v = 3 x 10^10 cm/s. Whereas, the maximum frequency of visible light (f) = 7.5*10^14 Hz, its wavelength (λ) = 400 nm, and its velocity v = c = 3 x 10^10 cm/s. 
The maximum frequency of Gamma-rays (f) = 10^24 Hz, its wavelength (λ) = <10^-12 m (i.e., <0.01 nano metres), and its velocity too (v) = 3 x 10^10 cm/s. Einstein's theory of special relativity sets the absolute speed limit at which a wave can travel, which is the speed of light (c) is equal to 3 x 10^10 cm/s. 
 
However, when the frequency (f) of any wave reach infinite (∞), its wavelength must be zero i.e., λ = 0. If wavelength is zero, then as per the scientific understanding, it can't be a wave, as it refers that the wave has no spatial time period or, it is stable at all times. 
 
Similarly, a singularity where gravity approach infinity, space and time cease to exist and current laws of physics cannot be applied. A no-dimensional singularity is considered to be a point form. So a question may arise, "how is it possible that the interaction of no-dimensional singularity occupy anything in three-dimensional space? (E.g. block-hole). Are no-dimensional black holes part of the 3-dimensional Universe?
 
Moreover, in real sense, a simple mathematical representation of energy (E) would not be possible in that condition, as there is no event or time, absence of light due to absence of stars, even then; energy suddenly can't go vanished but most likely it converted in some other form of energy and behave like vibration - as in the Planck's equation energy (E) is related to frequency. 
 
Whereas, time (t) is indefinite continued progress of existence and events in the past, present, and future, in irreversible progression. It is regarded as an abstract concept, there is increasing evidence that time is conceptualized in the mind in terms of space. That is, instead of thinking about time in a general, abstract way, humans think about time in a spatial way and mentally organize it as such. Using space to think about time allows humans to mentally organize temporal events in a specific way. Therefore, for the time to exist not only existence, either in the form of energy or matter, is necessary, but both existence and events are necessary, as any existence without events, hence without time, would have no real meaning. In absence of time, Planck's equation and the equation of Einstein's theory of special relativity would cease to apply. 
 
Rationally speaking, space too would cease to exist in absence of events, time and also light, moreover, the abstract nature of mathematics very likely to hints us that the energy (E), as in Planck's equation E=hν, likely to prevail as very high vibration frequency, that too without events, time, space and light. A singularity - where gravity approach infinity, space and time cease to exist and current laws of physics cannot be applied.
 
How energy behaves and what happens to it's frequency in such condition - a mathematical abstraction would probably hints us to conceptualize that frequency of such energy might have achieved infinite value, with the wavelength and it's dimension zero (0), known laws of physics would cease to operate in such condition but we can always conceptualize it though mathematical abstraction.
 
Types of Waves: (Idea on these required to understand the first vibration at the big bang and formation of space)
• Sine waves
• Square and rectangular waves
• Triangle and sawtooth waves
• Step and pulse shapes
 
Sine waves:
The sine wave is the fundamental wave shape for several reasons. It has harmonious mathematical properties - the same sine shape as in trigonometry. Test signals produced by the oscillator circuit of a signal generator are often sine waves. Most AC power sources produce sine waves.
Square and rectangular waves:
The square wave is another common wave shape. Basically, a square wave is a voltage that turns on and off (or goes high and low) at regular intervals.
 
The rectangular wave is like the square wave except that the high and low time intervals are not of equal length.
Triangle and sawtooth waves:
Sawtooth and Triangle waves result from circuits designed to control voltages linearly. The transitions between voltage levels of these waves change at a constant rate. These transitions are called ramps.
Step and pulse shapes
Signals such as steps and pulses that only occur once are called single-shot or transient signals. The step indicates a sudden change in voltage. The pulse indicates what you would see if you turned a power switch on and then off again. It might represent a glitch (a defect) in a circuit. A collection of pulses travelling together creates a pulse train.
 
Fundamental particles....
are the manifestations of the vibration of extremely small regions of space, various modes of these vibrations giving rise to all the known fermions and bosons.
 
There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration - Max Planck.
(Max Planck said this in 1944 - few years before his death, while he found it earlier in 1900)
 
The frequency of vibration of our universe: (2.2963 x 10^-18 Hz.)
The 'Hubble's constant' is actually the "frequency" of the universe or 1/time.
That is to say, 1 / (projected 'age' of our universe or 4.3547 x 10^17 seconds) gives us a universe that vibrates at a "frequency" of 2.2963 x 10^-18 Hz.
 
It is evident that the ultimate form of existential energy in its pure form is nothing but vibrations, spatial expansion lessen it's density and also cools it down to form particles and matters. So pure form of energy is actually vibration. 
 
Thermal Energy is heat, the energy that comes from the movement of atoms and molecules in a substance. Heat increases when these particles move faster. And movement of atoms and molecules represents vibration.
Energy has it's two basic forms:
 
1. Potential energy and,
2. Kinetic energy.
Type of Potential energy –
• Chemical,
• Mechanical,
• Nuclear,
• Gravitational.
• Type of Kinetic energy –
• Radiant,
• Thermal, (This is your only point)
• Motion,
• Sound,
• Electrical
 
Now my comment is that, all these energies can be represented by the letter 'E'.
E ∝ f (when constant h = 6.62607015×10^−34 J⋅Hz^−1)
Note: The Planck scale is an energy scale around 1.22×10^19 GeV at which quantum effects of gravity become strong. At this scale, present descriptions and theories of sub-atomic particle interactions in terms of quantum field theory break down and become inadequate.
 
The Law of vibration states that anything that exists in our universe, whether seen or unseen, broken down into and analyzed in its purest and most basic form consists of pure energy or light which resonates and exists as a vibratory frequency or pattern.
Therefore, the subatomic particles are manifestation of vibration, those are, as for example, quarks, leptons, where quarks confined in protons, neutrons and other hadrons, and electrons are also subatomic particles. All these subatomic particles are manifestation of vibrations.
 
"energy is strength for activity and provides light, heat, or work done, vibration is oscillation of an electromagnetic wave or oscillation of anything whose equilibrium has been disturbed.
an atom contains subatomic particles, atom is required to form matter, so everything is made up of atoms and atoms are constantly in a state of motion, the energy required to split a nucleus of an atom is known as atomic energy, the energy carried by atoms as nuclear binding energy,
a splitted atom releases subatomic particle, however, subatomic particles do not form matter but they are pure energy, everything in our universe is energy, so the universe is in an ocean of energy,
therefore nothing is completely at rest, everything is constantly vibrating at some frequency, energy is strength for activity, it is oscillation of anything whose equilibrium has been disturbed."
more....
It is oscillation of anything whose equilibrium has been disturbed, vibration and resonance are different in meaning and sense, rather vibration is oscillation of an electromagnetic wave or oscillation of anything whose equilibrium has been disturbed. and resonance is the reinforcement by the synchronous vibration of a neighbouring object including a subatomic particle. However, light is produced when the electrons in the atoms vibrate at certain resonant frequencies, alternatively when light waves resonate with an object, they cause the electrons to vibrate with high amplitudes due to in resonance. different resonant frequencies produce different spectrum of light, the sun light is white light and it contains resonant frequencies of the primary colours respectively.
 
As in string theory, there are no elementary particles (like electrons or quarks), but pieces of vibrating strings. Each vibration mode corresponds to a different particle and determines its charge and its mass. The consequences of replacing point like particles by vibrating microscopic strings are enormous.
 
Energy, in its primordial form, converted itself from nothing. It is all about vibration of a point of nothing and dimensions!
 

26 August 2021

Fate of the Universe speculated:

When the space is expanding at an accelerating rate and the galaxies, at the edge of the visible Universe, are entering into invisible universe even at greater speed than the speed of light, so is not it obvious that at some distant time all the galaxies would be so distant, scattered and worn out and the energy density of the Universe would be so thin and cold so that new stars cannot form and the galaxies would lose their mass, ultimately galaxies would no longer be gravitationally bound but surrender to the dark energy and dark energy would rule, further expansion dilute the baryonic Universe so thin so that the Universe would face a freezing state and gravity would exist only with the black holes existing then, so what can happen after that needs further thoughts.

*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*
Dark energy was first revealed observationally by examining the light from ultra-distant signals like supernovae. With measurements of both distance and redshift, scientists concluded that the Universe couldn't just be made of matter and radiation, but needed a new form of energy that would change the fate of our Universe. Here's why, more than 20 years later, it's still the biggest unsolved problem of them all.
The effective mass of dark energy is <0 and its gravitating mass is more than matter mass that results a strong effect at large scale as such, the cosmological expansion accelerate.
Antigravity exerted by dark energy affects a cosmic structure strongly at large scale. The dark energy background produces antigravity which is stronger than the matter gravity in the present Universe as a whole. This makes the cosmological expansion accelerated.
The cosmic antigravity can be stronger than gravity globally and also locally in the scale between 3.26 lightyear and 3.262×107 lightyear. The local weakfield dynamical effects of dark energy adequately described in term of Newtonian mechanics, and its effective gravitating density is negative, producing antigravity.
Gravity dominates at distances, while antigravity is stronger than gravity, therefore, a gravitationally bound system with its mass can exist only inside the zero gravity sphere of its radius [circumference of a sphere where, (antigravity - gravity = 0)], while dark energy is effective in the outer region of the domination of gravitating mass and practically have no effect within the strong domination of gravitating mass.
*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*-*
The ultimate fate of an expanding universe depends on the matter density ΩM and the dark energy density ΩΛ (Ref. the Image "Friedmann universes" below)
Theories about the end of the universe:
• Big Freeze or Heat Death
• Big Rip
• Big Crunch
• Big Bounce
• Big Slurp
• Cosmic uncertainty
Friedmann's universe

Friedmann's universe
 
 

24 August 2021

From Einstein's cosmological constant to dark energy:

In 1917 Einstein applied his theory of general relativity in the universe, and suggested a model of a homogeneous, static, spatially curved universe.

In 1917, Albert Einstein inserted a term called the cosmological constant into his theory of general relativity to force the equations to predict a stationary universe in keeping with physicists' thinking at the time.

Alexander Friedmann was a Russian mathematician and meteorologist who lived a short but eventful life. During the revolution of 1917 whilst besieged by White Russian forces in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) he heard about Einstein's work on general relativity. He started to derive solutions, publishing his findings in 1922. His key insight was to realise that there was no unique solution to Einstein's equations, rather there was a whole family of solutions possible. This family of solutions thus allowed for different cosmological models of the Universe.

In Friedmann's models the only force that is considered is gravitation. His model universes are homogeneous (the same everywhere on a large enough scale) and isotropic (look the same in every direction). Most importantly they incorporate the concept of expansion and in some cases, contraction. Einstein himself had viewed the Universe as static. Friedmann thus provided the theoretical framework for an expanding Universe within the spacetime and mathematics of general relativity. Unfortunately he contracted typhoid and died in 1925 during the Russian civil war before his work became widely known.

In 1922 Friedmann introduced the idea of an expanding universe that contained moving matter. Correspondence with Einstein suggests that Einstein was unwilling to accept the idea of an evolving Universe and worked instead to modify his equations to ensure a static eternal Universe as believed from Newton's time.

Some years later, in 1926 Hubble published the redshift vs. distance relationship, namely, all the galaxies in the neighbourhood seemed to be receding at a rate proportional to their distance, formalising an observation made earlier by Carl Wilhelm Wirtz. It may be noted that in 1927 Belgian astronomer Georges Lemaître also independently reached the conclusion of an evolving Universe

Until 1931, physicist Albert Einstein believed that the universe was static.  Albert Einstein accepted the modern cosmological view that the universe is expanding long after many of his contemporaries. An urban legend attributes this change of perspective to when American astronomer Edwin Hubble showed Einstein his observations of redshift in the light emitted by far away nebulae -- today known as galaxies. But the reality is more complex. The change in Einstein’s viewpoint, in fact, resulted from a tortuous thought process. Now researchers explain how Einstein changed his mind following many encounters with some of the most influential astrophysicists of his generation.

However, the universe was not static. It was expanding. This observation, and those preceding Hubble's paper, led Belgian priest Georges Lemaître to propose in 1931 that the universe originated from a small and compact state, what he called a "Cosmic Egg" and what is now called the Big Bang.

When it became clear that the universe wasn't actually static, but was expanding instead, Einstein abandoned the constant, calling it the '"biggest blunder" of his life.

In 1932 Albert Einstein teamed up with the Dutch theoretical physicist and astronomer, Willem de Sitter, to propose an eternally expanding universe which became the cosmological model generally accepted until the middle of the 1990s. To Einstein's relief these two models no longer needed the cosmological constant.

The majority of the energy in our Universe went completely undiscovered until the late 1990s, and scientists still don't know what it is. Only 5% of the Universe, in terms of energy, is made out of things we're familiar with and understand: protons, neutrons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, black holes and even gravitational waves. Of the remainder, 27% is dark matter and 68%, the largest amount, is in the form of a new, mysterious substance called dark energy.

Dark energy was first revealed observationally by examining the light from ultra-distant signals like supernovae. With measurements of both distance and redshift, scientists concluded that the Universe couldn't just be made of matter and radiation, but needed a new form of energy that would change the fate of our Universe. Here's why, more than 20 years later, it's still the biggest unsolved problem of them all.

The effective mass of dark energy is <0 and its gravitating mass is more than matter mass that results a strong effect at large scale as such, the cosmological expansion accelerate.

Antigravity exerted by dark energy affects a cosmic structure strongly at large scale. The dark energy background produces antigravity which is stronger than the matter gravity in the present Universe as a whole. This makes the cosmological expansion accelerated.

The cosmic antigravity can be stronger than gravity globally and also locally in the scale between 3.26 lightyear and 3.262×107 lightyear. The local weakfield dynamical effects of dark energy adequately described in term of Newtonian mechanics, and its effective gravitating density is negative, producing antigravity.

Gravity dominates at distances, while antigravity is stronger than gravity, therefore, a gravitationally bound system with its mass can exist only inside the zero gravity sphere of its radius [circumference of a sphere where, (antigravity - gravity = 0)], while dark energy is effective in the outer region of the domination of gravitating mass and practically have no effect within the strong domination of gravitating mass.

===================Alexander Friedmann ====================

The father of the Big Bang....
Alexander Friedmann corrected Einstein and found solutions to the field equations describing expanding, contracting and oscillating universes. He was a pure mathematician with interests in application of mathematics in the physical sciences and he originated the theory of the expanding universe.

The idea of a static universe goes back to Newton's absolute space and time, but even Newton was worried about the stability of the cosmos: The entire universe would collapse according to the universal attractions of all pieces of matter. When Einstein applied his improved theory of gravity to the whole universe, he could not find a distribution of the mass which would give a stable universe. Later he introduced a cosmological term, representing a repulsive force, which would save the universe from collapse. He proved that the universe must necessarily be stable and unchanging in time. When Friedmann wrote to Einstein that he had made an error in his proof which opened a new class of expanding, collapsing and pulsating world models and there was no need of changing Einstein's original gravity equations, Einstein did not respond. Many years later when Gamow discussed cosmology with Einstein he remarked that, the cosmological term was the biggest blunder he ever made in his life".

Source: Aug 09, 1997, Michael Cramer Andersen, Lecturer in Physics and Astronomy

Friedmann is seen as a profound, independent-minded, and daring thinker who destroys scientific prejudices, myths and dogmas; his intellect sees what others do not see, and will not see what others believe to be obvious but for which there are no grounds in reality. He rejects the centuries-old tradition which chose, prior to any experience, to consider the Universe eternal and eternally immutable. He accomplishes a genuine revolution in science. As Copernicus made the Earth go round the Sun, so Friedmann made the Universe expand.


In 1922 Alexander Friedmann published his famous paper on cosmology where he discovered non-stationary solution of Einstein's equations, describing closed expanding space with beginning and end of the Universe in time-closed Friedmann model.
In 1924 he published a paper on expanding Universe with negative curvature, infinite in space but having beginning in time. At that time he also published a popular book "The world as space and time" where discussed a new vision of the expanding Universe with possible beginning and end in time.


#CosmologicalConstant #DarkEnergy #AntiGravity #AlbertEinstein #AlexanderFriedmann

 

Dimensional reach, in view of space and time:

None can affect anything in higher dimensions from a lower one. However, a higher dimensional entity can affect lower dimensional entities. 

  • A point has no dimension but has a conceptual location, imperceptible to us.  
  • Length added to a point is one dimensional (line), and perceptible to us.
  • Height added to a Length is two dimensional (plane), and perceptible to us.  
  • Depth added to a plane is three dimensional (space), also perceptible to us.  
  • Another dimension added to space is four dimensional, imperceptible to us. 

It is clear from the above statements that a lower dimensional entity won't have complete reach in its immediate higher dimension. However, a higher dimensional entity contains all of its lower dimension/s and can affect or influence anything in lower dimension/s. 

As for example, we (being three dimensional) can sense (view and hear) a video from a two dimensional screen but anything from us is not sensible to the entities within the two dimensional screen. 

Since, space is three dimensional and time is conceptual fourth dimensional, as such space can't affect or interact with time. And they are incompatible to make an alliance. 

#spacetime #space #time #dimensions #dimensional

11 August 2021

The Big Bang nucleosynthesis: The first 20 minutes, timeline & chronology of the Universe.

The Big Bang nucleosynthesis:

One may get a fair idea on how the Universe came into being from nothing from the Big Bang nucleosynthesis of the Universe. The nuclear reactions in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Nucleosynthesis is the formation of new atomic nuclei, the centres of atoms that are made up of protons and neutrons. The first nuclei were formed a few minutes after the Big Bang, a quark-gluon plasma, a soup of particles known as quarks and gluons, condensed into protons and neutrons, further process formed new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons i.e. protons and neutrons, and nuclei.

Similarity:

Evidence of nucleosynthesis in other stars has been discovered in S-Type stars by Merrill (1952). Nucleosynthesis in main sequence stars involves fusion of 4 Hydrogen nuclei into Helium (He4 or α-particle) through a chain of reactions called the Proton-Proton chain (as first discovered by Hans Bethe in 1939). Stellar nucleosynthesis is the nuclear process by which new nuclei are produced. It occurs in stars during stellar evolution. It is responsible for the galactic abundances of elements from carbon to iron. The synthesis of the naturally occurring elements and their isotopes present in the Solar System solids may be divided into three broad segments: primordial nucleosynthesis (H, He), energetic particle (cosmic ray) interactions (Li, Be, B), and stellar nucleosynthesis (C and heavier elements).

The timeline of the early universe:

The timeline of the early universe outlines the formation and subsequent evolution of the Universe from the Big Bang (13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago) to the present day. An epoch is a moment in time from which nature or situations change to such a degree that it marks the beginning of a new era or age.

The chronology of the universe:

The chronology of the universe describes the history and future of the universe according to Big Bang cosmology. The earliest stages of the universe's existence are estimated as taking place 13.8 billion years ago, with an uncertainty of around 21 million years at the 68% confidence level.

 

The first 20 minutes:

  • Planck epoch - the Planck epoch or Planck era is the earliest stage of the Big Bang, before the time passed was equal to the Planck time, tP, or approximately 10^−43 seconds. It is generally assumed that quantum effects of gravity dominate physical interactions at this time scale.
  • Grand unification epoch - The Grand Unification Epoch took place from 10^-43 seconds to 10^-36 seconds after our universe was born. During this period, three of the four fundamental interactions—electromagnetism, the strong interaction, and the weak interaction—were unified as the electronuclear force. Gravity had separated from the electronuclear force at the end of the Planck era. The strong force separated from the other fundamental forces.
  • Electroweak epoch - The quark epoch ended when the universe was about 10^−6 seconds old. The electroweak interaction is a fundamental force representing unification of the electromagnetic and weak nuclear interactions. The work of three physicists, Glashow, Weinberg, and Salam, showed that the electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces can be understood as a single interaction.
  • Quark epoch - The quark epoch ended when the universe was about 10^−6 seconds old, when the average energy of particle interactions had fallen below the binding energy of hadrons. During the quark epoch the universe was filled with dense, hot quark–gluon plasma, containing quarks, leptons and their antiparticles.
  • Hadron epoch - The Hadron epoch started 20 microseconds after the Big Bang and lasted from 10^-6 seconds until one second. The universe was now around 1 trillion degrees which allowed quarks to combine and form hadrons. Hadrons are subatomic particles made up of quarks, anti-quarks, and gluons. There are two categories of known hadrons: baryons and mesons. Most of the hadrons and anti-hadrons were eliminated in annihilation reactions, leaving a small residue of hadrons. Upon elimination of anti-hadrons, the Universe was dominated by photons, neutrinos and electron-positron pairs.
  • Lepton epoch - The Lepton epoch commencing about 10^−5 s after the Big Bang, in which the various kinds of lepton were the main contributors to the density of the Universe.
  • Photon epoch - The photon epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe in which photons dominated the energy of the universe.

Matter era:

The period in the evolution of the universe, beginning roughly 105 years after the big bang, when the universe had cooled to the point at which electrons and protons were able to form neutral hydrogen atoms, and continuing to the present time, during which matter, in the form of atoms, is dominant over radiation.

  • Cosmic Dark Age - The cosmic dark ages were a time when the universe was enveloped by a fog of neutral hydrogen that trapped the light of the first stars and galaxies. The fog didn't lift until 1 billion years after the Big Bang, when the neutral hydrogen had been re-ionized and once again split apart.
  • Galaxy epoch - From 370,000 years until about 1 billion years. After recombination and decoupling, the universe was transparent but the clouds of hydrogen only collapsed very slowly to form stars and galaxies, so there were no new sources of light,  large galaxies were formed through a rapid gravitational collapse that would have resulted in huge bursts of star formation at early epochs, leaving behind galaxies that had rapidly exhausted their fuel to age quiescently until the present; these galaxies appear now as large collections of old, red stars, such as elliptical galaxies and the central bulges of spiral galaxies.
  • Acceleration - Dark-energy dominated era begins, following the matter-dominated era during which cosmic expansion was slowing down.  Messier 67 open star cluster forms. Three exoplanets confirmed orbiting stars in the cluster including a twin of our Sun. Lalande 21185, red dwarf in Ursa Major, forms. Proxima Centauri forms completing the Alpha Centauri trinary system.

Epochs of the formation of the solar system:

9.2318 billion years, Sun forms - Planetary nebula begins accretion of planets. 9.257 billion years, Solar System of Eight planets, four terrestrial Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars evolve around the sun.

 

#TheBigBang #Nucleosynthesis #TimelineOfTheUniverse #ChronologyOfTheUniverse #PlanckEpoch #GrandUnificationEpoch #ElectroweakEpoch #QuarkEpoch #HadronEpoch #LeptonEpoch #PhotonEpoch #MatteEra #CosmicDarkAge #GalaxyEpoch #UniversalAcceleration #EpochsOfTheSolarSystem