The Nature of Space, Time, and Their Emergence from the Big Bang:

Mark Jagg In response to your last comment here "The term expansion of space : Q. What fabric is space made of..? The concept of reasoning tells us space has always existed:"

January 18, 2025

"Space" is often used as an abstract term, but in physical terms, it does not apply directly, since space is traditionally defined by the dimensions of height, depth, and breadth within which all things exist and move. In contrast, dimensions refer to specific measurable extents, such as length, width, height, or depth, each representing a quantifiable range or distance through which events unfold.

While dimensions are conceptualized as properties within a coordinate system, they are inherently abstract and mathematical. On the other hand, height, depth, and breadth are specific representations of measurable length, and their combination defines the extended volume we call space—an expanse in which existence occupies and events occur.

Thus, space itself does not have an abstract physical structure but is constituted by the events of existence within it. The structure of space can be viewed as an abstract concept, but it lacks a direct physical application outside the occurrence of events.

From a logical standpoint, space becomes meaningful only when an event with physical existence takes place. Time, too, is intrinsically tied to space and can only manifest in conjunction with it. Therefore, both space and time are rendered meaningless without the occurrence of physical events within existence.

Moreover, it is established that no known physical pre-existence existed before the Big Bang event, implying that the familiar concept of space and time as we understand it did not exist before this moment.

Thus, space and time must have originated from the Big Bang event, emerging as fundamental aspects of our universe post-singularity.

The Impact of Cosmic Expansion: Energy Loss and the Limits of Light in the Observable Universe

Soumendra Nath Thakur

January 17, 2025

Light becomes unreachable from sources at distances beyond what light could travel in 13.8 billion years, particularly when the relative recession speed between the source and observer exceeds the speed of light.

Additionally, the expansion of intergalactic space—driven by dark energy—increases the physical distance between distant sources and observers. Photons expend additional energy to traverse this growing separation. Over time, cumulative energy loss diminishes photons' ability to propagate as electromagnetic waves at their inherent speed, rendering them incapable of reaching us. The observed 46-billion-light-year horizon of the universe may be linked to this energy dissipation.

Scientific and Mathematical Consistency

1. Hubble's Law and Physical Distance (d):

Hubble's Law, v = H₀⋅d, describes the recession velocity (v) of galaxies in terms of the Hubble constant (H₀) and the distance (d) between objects.

• For distant galaxies, v can exceed the speed of light (c) due to the expansion of space, making their light unreachable.

• Here, d represents measurable physical separation, consistent with classical mechanics, rather than an abstract "stretching of space."

2. Dark Energy and Increasing Separation:

While Hubble's Law treats d as static, the repulsive effects of dark energy dynamically increase physical separations, causing galaxies to recede and inducing the observed cosmic redshift.

3. Redshift and Distance:

The cosmological redshift (z) arises from the increasing separation between galaxies, with the wavelength stretching proportionally:

1 + z = λᴏʙꜱᴇʀᴠᴇᴅ/λꜱᴏᴜʀᴄᴇ.

This redshift reflects physical motion, consistent with classical mechanics.

4. Photon Energy Loss in Expanding Space:

The energy of a photon (E = h⋅f) diminishes as its frequency (f) decreases with increasing z:

f ∝ 1/ (1+z).

This represents the cumulative energy loss as photons traverse expanding distances.

5. Observable Universe and Energy Limits:

The observable universe's radius (~46 billion light-years) corresponds to the farthest distance light has travelled since the Big Bang, incorporating the cumulative effects of dark energy-driven expansion.

6. Mathematical Horizon:

The radius of the observable universe can be expressed as:

dᴏʙꜱᴇʀᴠᴀʙʟᴇ = c ∫(0 to tₚᵣₑₛₑₙₜ) {1/a(t)H(t)} dt,

where a(t) is the scale factor and H(t) is the Hubble parameter. This integral reflects the influence of cosmic expansion on photon travel.

7. Consistency with Hubble's Framework:

• v = H₀⋅d remains valid, with d interpreted as dynamic physical distance.

• Dark energy's repulsive effects reconcile the equation with modern observations, without invoking additional variables for "space stretching."

Logical Implications

1. Unreachable Light:

Light from sources receding faster than c due to cosmic expansion becomes undetectable.

2. Dark Energy's Role:

Dark energy accelerates cosmic expansion, increasing separations and stretching photon wavelengths, leading to redshift and energy loss.

3. Energy Depletion and Photons:

Over vast distances, cumulative energy loss renders photons incapable of maintaining wave properties, explaining the limits of the observable universe.

Conclusion

This analysis integrates Hubble's Law, redshift, and dark energy effects into a cohesive framework, explaining why light from extremely distant sources becomes unobservable. It preserves the classical mechanics foundation while aligning with modern cosmological observations, highlighting the interplay between energy loss, cosmic expansion, and the observable universe's horizon.

#observableuniverse #cosmicexpansion

Response to Comment on the Big Bang Theory and Related Concepts.

January 14, 2025

Dear Mark Jagg

Your comments raise important points, and I will address them systematically based on the discussions above:

Before addressing your comment, it is essential to ensure scientific consistency in the terms you’ve used, such as 'elements,' 'electro-structure,' 'element ingredients,' 'Big Bang explosion,' 'evolution of atomic structure,' 'evolved elements,' and others. Let us examine these terms briefly to establish clarity:

1. Elements: Elements are fundamental substances defined by their atomic number, representing the number of protons in an atom's nucleus. The Big Bang produced neutrons, protons, electrons, and photons, but lighter elements like hydrogen and helium only formed after 300,000 years. Heavier elements, such as carbon and oxygen, were synthesized much later in stars through nuclear fusion.

2. Electronic Structure: This refers to the arrangement of electrons in atoms or molecules under the influence of nuclear electrostatic fields. The term 'electro-structure' lacks a clear scientific definition in this context.

3. Electron Temperature: This describes the average energy of electrons in a plasma, measured in Kelvin or electron volts. It should not be confused with an undefined term like 'electro-temperature.'

4. Element Ingredients: Elements are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. While hydrogen and helium emerged after the Big Bang, heavier elements were synthesized much later within stars, not during the Big Bang event itself.

5. Big Bang Inflation: The term 'Big Bang explosion' is a misnomer. The Big Bang refers to the rapid expansion of space, not a conventional explosion. This expansion set the stage for the formation of matter and the universe as we observe it today.

6. Evolution of Atomic Structure: The early universe saw the formation of nuclei and later atoms, such as hydrogen and helium, during the recombination period approximately 380,000 years post-Big Bang. Stars and galaxies formed hundreds of millions of years later.

7. Evolved Elements: Stable atoms emerged during the recombination period, while heavier elements were produced through stellar nucleosynthesis as the universe evolved.

8. Temperature of the Universe: The universe's current temperature, about 2.7 Kelvin, reflects the cooling of radiation due to the expansion of space, known as red shifting. This contrasts with the incorrect term '-270 C Kelvin.'

By clarifying these concepts, we can engage in a more rigorous intellectual debate on the topics raised in your comment.

Intellectual Debate Analysis:

1. "Elements are electro-structures 'within' The Atomic structure that need to evolve - in order to create the Element ingredients of hypothetical Big Bang Explosion."

Scientific Analysis:

• Definition of Elements and Atomic Structure: Elements are defined by their atomic number (proton count). Atomic structure comprises a nucleus (protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons. The term "electro-structures" is ambiguous and lacks scientific basis. If it refers to electron configurations, these influence chemical behaviour, not the creation of elements.

• Formation of Elements: The Big Bang produced light nuclei—hydrogen, helium, lithium, and beryllium—within the first few minutes. Heavier elements formed later in stars through nuclear fusion. Referring to "element ingredients" as something that "evolves" misrepresents the process, as subatomic particles are the fundamental building blocks of matter.

2. "Therefore the evolution of Atomic structure needs to evolve its elements - in order to create a Fiery Big Bang Explosion."

Scientific Analysis:

• Atomic Structure Evolution: Atomic structures do not "evolve" to create elements. Elements form via nucleosynthesis during the Big Bang (light nuclei) and in stars (heavier nuclei). The evolution here relates to cosmic nucleosynthesis, not atomic structure itself.

• 'Fiery Big Bang Explosion': The Big Bang was not an explosion but a rapid expansion of space. The term "fiery" is misleading, as the early universe, while extremely hot, expanded uniformly without a central explosion point.

3. "Furthermore, how is it possible a Big Bang Explosion could occur in the midst of The most Dominating Space-force in The Universe -270 'C' Kelvin electro-Temperature Environment?"

Scientific Analysis:

• Temperature Clarification: The universe's current temperature is approximately 2.7 Kelvin, not -270°C. This temperature reflects the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, red shifted from the much hotter early universe. The early universe was millions of degrees Kelvin, suitable for forming subatomic particles and light nuclei.

• 'Dominating Space-force' and 'Electro-Temperature': These terms lack scientific validity. If "space-force" refers to forces like gravity, their characteristics were significantly different in the early universe. "Electro-temperature" conflates unrelated concepts and is not recognized in physics.

Big Bang and Scientific Rules: The assertion that "Big Bang just doesn't fit the rules of Science" may arise from misconceptions. The Big Bang theory is grounded in empirical evidence, including:

• The observed expansion of the universe.

• The cosmic microwave background (CMB) as a relic of the early universe.

• The abundance of light elements consistent with Big Bang nucleosynthesis.

While the theory is subject to refinement, it remains the most robust framework for explaining the universe's origin and evolution.

Conclusion: Your statements reflect a need for clarity in scientific terminology and concepts. Misinterpretations, such as conflating atomic structure with nucleosynthesis or misunderstanding the nature of the Big Bang, can lead to confusion. By addressing these inaccuracies, we can engage in a meaningful and constructive intellectual debate on the subject.

The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR): A Window to the Early Universe.

Soumendra Nath Thakur

January 13, 2025

The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) is electromagnetic radiation that permeates the observable universe and represents the oldest and most distant light we can detect. It is a relic of the early universe and serves as a crucial piece of evidence for the Big Bang model.

Origin and Formation

The Big Bang model suggests that the universe began in a dense and hot state, undergoing rapid expansion and cooling. In the first moments after the Big Bang, matter consisted primarily of neutrons, protons, electrons, and photons. During this period, light and matter were tightly coupled due to constant interactions between photons and charged particles, rendering the universe opaque.

Approximately 300,000 years after the Big Bang, the universe had cooled sufficiently for neutral atoms to form—a process known as recombination. This allowed photons to travel freely, marking the release of the first light: the Cosmic Microwave Background. The decoupling of light and matter made the universe transparent for the first time, and the CMB represents this "last scattering surface" of photons.

Expansion and Red shifting

As the universe expanded, the wavelengths of the CMB photons stretched, or red shifted, from the visible spectrum to the microwave range. This process, driven by the expansion of space, cooled the radiation to its current temperature of approximately 2.7 Kelvin. The CMB's transition to microwave frequencies makes it undetectable to the naked eye, but specially designed instruments, such as the Planck telescope, enable us to study it in great detail.

Significance of the CMB

Historical Insight: The CMB is the farthest and oldest light detectable by telescopes, providing a snapshot of the universe at a time just 300,000 years after the Big Bang. It offers a direct view of the conditions of the early universe.

Cosmological Evidence: The uniformity and fluctuations in the CMB support the Big Bang theory and provide evidence for the processes of inflation and the formation of large-scale structures, such as galaxies and galaxy clusters.

Red shift and Expansion: The red shifting of the CMB photons due to the universe's expansion highlights the dynamic nature of space-time and the continuous cooling of the cosmos.

Limitations in Observation

The CMB marks the observable boundary of the universe. Beyond its release, the universe was opaque, preventing any direct observation of earlier events. The stretching of photon wavelengths to the microwave scale over billions of years also makes the event of the Big Bang itself unobservable within the detectable universe.

Conclusion

The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation is a cornerstone of modern cosmology, providing invaluable insights into the birth, evolution, and large-scale structure of the universe. It stands as the oldest detectable light and serves as a testament to the universe's journey from its fiery beginnings to its current state of cosmic expansion.

The CMB is the farthest and oldest light detectable by telescopes, and its expansion has affected the cosmic background. As space expanded, photons from the cosmic background redshifted to microwave wavelengths, taking about 300,000 years from the Big Bang event, making the event of the Big Bang unobservable within the detectable universe.

Dual Mass Properties of Semi-Dirac Fermions: Theoretical Insights and Technological Implications

This study provides a theoretical explanation of semi-Dirac fermions using the extended classical mechanics framework, emphasizing the duality of mass properties and their implications for technological advancements.

Soumendra Nath Thakur, Tagore's Electronic Lab, WB. India 

January 11, 2025.

Abstract

Semi-Dirac fermions are unique quasiparticles that exhibit dual mass properties, being massless in one direction and massive in another. This phenomenon is explained using the extended classical mechanics framework, which distinguishes the behaviour of particles with rest mass (Mᴍ > 0) from those that are massless (Mᴍ = 0). For particles with rest mass, the effective mass (Mᵉᶠᶠ > 0) results in forces aligned with external gravitational influences, ensuring classical motion. Conversely, massless particles with negative effective mass (Mᵉᶠᶠ​ < 0) experience forces opposing gravitational fields. This duality underpins the behaviour of semi-Dirac fermions, which were recently observed in zirconium silicon sulphide (ZrSiS) crystals. The discovery, published in Physical Review X by researchers at Penn State and Columbia University, marks a significant advancement in condensed matter physics and offers exciting potential for technological innovations, including quantum devices, batteries, and sensors.

Description 

The following description provides the explanation of the dual mass properties of semi-Dirac fermions within the framework of extended classical mechanics, their experimental confirmation in ZrSiS crystals.

Semi-Dirac fermions exhibit a unique duality in their mass properties, being massive in one direction and massless in another, for reasons rooted in the extended classical mechanics framework.

For particles with rest mass Mᴍ > 0:

The force equation is expressed as:

F = (Mᴍ − Mᵃᵖᵖ)⋅aᵉᶠᶠ

Where Mᴍ > 0 represents the rest mass, Mᵃᵖᵖ denotes the apparent mass, and Mᵉᶠᶠ = (Mᴍ − Mᵃᵖᵖ) is the effective mass. For such particles, an effective mass Mᵉᶠᶠ > 0 leads to a positive force aligned with the external gravitational influence, ensuring classical motion under gravitational forces.

For massless particles with Mᴍ = 0:

The force equation simplifies to: 

F = −Mᵉᶠᶠ ⋅ aᵉᶠᶠ

Where Mᵉᶠᶠ = −Mᵃᵖᵖ < 0. Here, the negative effective mass results in a force opposing the direction of the external gravitational field, distinguishing their behaviour from particles with positive effective mass.

This distinct behaviour of massless particles aligns with the characteristics of semi-Dirac fermions, which exhibit massless motion in one direction while being massive in another. This duality has been experimentally confirmed in zirconium silicon sulphide (ZrSiS) crystals, a semi-metal material. First theorized 16 years ago, semi-Dirac fermions have now been directly observed, representing a significant milestone in condensed matter physics.

A research team from Penn State and Columbia University identified these quasiparticles and published their ground breaking findings in the journal Physical Review X. Their discovery holds immense promise for advancing emerging technologies, such as next-generation batteries and highly sensitive sensors. By bridging the gap between massless and massive particle behaviour, semi-Dirac fermions could provide a foundation for transformative quantum and technological applications, opening new horizons in material science and quantum mechanics.

Conclusion

The observation of semi-Dirac fermions in ZrSiS crystals represents a milestone in the study of quasiparticles and their dual mass properties. Using the framework of extended classical mechanics, their unique behaviour—massless in one direction and massive in another—has been effectively explained. This discovery not only validates theoretical predictions made over 16 years ago but also opens new avenues for research in material science and quantum mechanics. The potential applications of semi-Dirac fermions in advanced technologies such as sensors and energy storage systems underscore their importance. By bridging the gap between massless and massive particle behaviour, this breakthrough paves the way for transformative innovations, highlighting the far-reaching implications of fundamental research in physics.

Links to the discovery, research paper:

1.https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevX.14.041057

2.https://modernsciences.org/new-particle-shifts-massless-massive-states-semi-dirac-fermion-december-2024/

References: 

[1]. Thakur, S. N. (2024). Extended Classical Mechanics: Vol-1 - Equivalence Principle, Mass and Gravitational Dynamics. doi: https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202409.1190.v3

[2]. Thakur, S. N. (2024) Photon Dynamics in extended classical mechanics: Effective mass, negative inertia, momentum exchange and analogies with Dark Energy. doi: 10.20944/preprints202411.1797.v1

[3]. Thakur, S.N. (2024) A symmetry and conservation framework for photon energy interactions in gravitational fields. doi: 10.20944/preprints202411.0956.v1

[4]. Thakur, S.N. (2024) Photon interactions with external gravitational fields: True cause of gravitational lensing. doi: 10.20944/preprints202410.2121.v1

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Comment:

The above presentation consistently evaluates the alignment of the discovery research with the theoretical focus, highlighting the following:

Theoretical Framework:

The  above presentation acknowledges the accurate emphasis on the extended classical mechanics framework, which forms the foundation of the explanation for the dual mass properties of semi-Dirac fermions.

Mass Properties:

The  distinction  between   rest  mass (Mᴍ > 0) and massless (Mᴍ = 0) particles, along with the roles of effective mass (Mᵉᶠᶠ > 0 and Mᵉᶠᶠ < 0) is clearly reiterated,  aligning with the presented work.

Observations and Implications:

The above presentation appropriately notes the reference to semi-Dirac fermions' experimental observation in ZrSiS crystals and their technological potential, confirming the coherence of these aspects with the presentation.

Focus:

It recognizes the presentation's intentional narrowing of focus to theoretical insights and technological implications, while omitting experimental details and topological aspects, which were not central to the scope of the presentation.

Conclusion:

The conclusion in the above presentation reaffirms the consistency, clarity, and relevance of the presentation, accurately reflecting the theoretical and applied aspects while justifying the selective omission of experimental specifics.

Final Assessment:

The above presentation effectively supports and reinforces the coherence and focus of the Dual Mass Properties of Semi-Dirac Fermions: Theoretical Insights and Technological Implications. It aligns with the intentions and scope of the presentation while maintaining clarity and logical flow.