Interpretational Study on Universal Force and the Big Bang Model:

Soumendra Nath Thakur

ORCiD: 0000-0003-1871-7803 

08-11-2024

Abstract:

This interpretational study revisits the Big Bang model with a focus on the concept of a Universal Force, examining gravity as the primordial and singular fundamental force preceding the Big Bang. The study proposes that the universe began in an extremely energetic and dense state dominated by an infinitely intense gravitational field, from which the four fundamental forces—gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force—later emerged. This framework redefines gravity not merely as one of the four forces but as the initial unified field that encompassed all forces in an undivided state.

In this context, the gravitational singularity is interpreted as a point where neither space nor time existed, and where intense gravitational energy acted as the source of the universe’s initial mass-energy. As the universe expanded and cooled, this intense gravitational field transitioned, separating into the distinct forces observed today. This approach diverges from traditional General Relativity interpretations by asserting that curved spacetime is non-fundamental to the Big Bang model, emphasizing that quantum field and thermodynamic processes, rather than relativistic spacetime, are foundational to early cosmic evolution.

The study explores implications for a Grand Unified Theory (GUT), as this model supports the idea that all forces were unified at high energies within an intensely energetic gravitational field. This interpretation offers an integrative approach to understanding the formation of mass-energy and the separation of forces, bridging particle physics, thermodynamics, and cosmology to provide a consistent account of the universe’s earliest moments.

Keywords:

Universal Force, Big Bang model, gravitational singularity, primordial universe, fundamental forces, mass-energy, thermodynamics, quantum field theory, Grand Unified Theory (GUT), cosmic evolution,

Universal Force:

The Big Bang Theory posits that at the beginning of time, a single force dominated—gravity, which functioned as the sole fundamental force within the primordial universe before the Big Bang event. Only later, as the universe expanded and cooled, did the other fundamental forces separate from this primary force. In this earliest phase, the universe existed in an incredibly dense and energetic state, with gravity uniquely prevailing as the singular force prior to the Big Bang. Here, the concept of a "singularity" specifically denotes a gravitational singularity—a state where neither space nor time existed and where gravitational intensity reached an infinite magnitude.

Within this framework, the four known fundamental forces—gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force—originated from a single unified force expressed through an infinitely intense gravitational field. This unified gravitational field provided the foundational force from which distinct forces gradually emerged as the universe continued its expansion and experienced cooling. The gravitational singularity thus marks the universe’s origin point, initiating the cosmic processes that followed.

As post-Big Bang expansion and cooling progressed, the fundamental forces separated from this initial unified field and adopted their distinct roles within the physical universe. The notion that gravity was the first force to manifest aligns with early cosmological models; however, the exact mechanisms of this separation remain an unresolved question at the frontier of cosmology and high-energy physics. The ongoing search for a Grand Unified Theory (GUT) aims to explain this unified state of forces at high energies and in the presence of an intensely energetic gravitational field in the early universe.

Interpretive Summary and Analysis of the Primordial State within the Big Bang Framework:

This interpretation provides nuanced insights into the Big Bang model, especially concerning gravity's pivotal role and the origins of mass-energy and space-time. Consider the following points within contemporary cosmological and theoretical contexts:

Intense Gravitational Force as the Unified Source of Fundamental Forces

This description of the primordial state, where an intense gravitational force unified all fundamental interactions, aligns well with the Big Bang model, which characterizes this state as extremely dense and energetic. In this conceptualization, gravity is not merely one of the four forces but rather represents a high-energy, unified field. Here, the infinite energy of this intense gravitational state acts as the initial source of mass-energy, which, through entropy-driven processes, becomes the universe’s content as expansion and cooling unfold. This view captures a critical thermodynamic process, wherein mass-energy emerges from initial gravitational intensity, emphasizing gravity’s foundational role in the early universe.

Curved Spacetime as Non-Fundamental to the Big Bang

The clarification that curved spacetime is not a fundamental concept in the Big Bang model aligns with current cosmology, which builds on high-energy particle and quantum physics rather than solely on General Relativity. Curved spacetime becomes relevant only after the emergence of space and time; thus, the initial singular state precludes such curvature considerations. This distinction positions gravity as an undivided and powerful force in primordial conditions, rather than as a product of spacetime curvature, aligning with particle physics perspectives on early cosmic history.

Separation of Forces from the Pre-Existing Gravitational Field

Interpreting the Big Bang as a phase where a primordial gravitational field unified all fundamental forces is consistent with the cooling and expansion processes described by the model. As temperatures and densities decreased, this unified gravitational field allowed the distinct forces—gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forces—to emerge. Here, the immense energy characterizing the early universe is distinct from the fundamental forces themselves, instead acting as the initial mass-energy, undergoing transformation through thermal entropy to form the universe’s structure. This interpretation aligns with the thermodynamic principles foundational to the Big Bang model, wherein mass-energy is a transformation of the initial gravitational state.

Summary

This interpretation emphasizes gravity’s central role as the early universe’s unified field, from which distinct forces emerged over time as expansion and cooling progressed. This approach bridges particle physics, thermodynamics, and cosmology, while reserving spacetime curvature considerations for the post-singularity phase. Scientifically consistent, this perspective offers a cohesive path for exploring the universe’s initial conditions, mass-energy origins, and the distinct roles of gravity and other forces within the Big Bang framework.

#UniversalForce, #BigBangmodel, #gravitationalsingularity, #primordialuniverse, #fundamentalforces, #massenergy, #thermodynamics, #quantumfieldtheory, #GrandUnifiedTheory, #GUT, #cosmicevolution,

Question: If Mars is almost airless and seemingly lifeless, what motivates humans to want to establish a settlement there?

08-11-2024

My Answer:

Pessimistic part:

The motivation to establish a human settlement on Mars extends far beyond mere curiosity or incentive; it is fundamentally tied to the long-term survival of our species. Earth faces numerous existential risks, ranging from the catastrophic potential of a global thermonuclear war, widespread deployment of biological weapons, or a super volcanic eruption, to natural cosmic threats like asteroid impacts and extreme solar flares. Additionally, global climate change, biodiversity loss, resource depletion, and even the unforeseen consequences of advanced technologies—such as runaway artificial intelligence or nanotechnology—pose severe threats to life as we know it. The intelligence and power humanity wields bring both advancement and risk, as history shows that civilizations can sometimes engineer their own demise.

Mars, while not without its own vulnerabilities, provides a viable frontier for a backup civilization, potentially shielding humanity from some Earth-bound threats. However, it is worth noting that even Mars would not be immune to certain universal hazards, such as a nearby supernova, gamma-ray burst, or, hypothetically, an alien invasion. Establishing a presence on Mars is thus not about escaping all threats but about creating a resilient foundation that could endure beyond Earth's specific challenges. The drive to settle Mars reflects humanity's pursuit of security, exploration, and the preservation of life. In this sense, Mars offers a strategic lifeline, making settlement not just a goal, but a necessity in the face of an unpredictable cosmic future.

Runaway artificial intelligence capturing the double-edged potential of advanced AI—where rapid, uncontrollable advancements could have significant implications for humanity. It’s a reminder of both the power and responsibility we have in developing technology, whether on Earth or in future colonies.

Optimistic Part:

Scientific Exploration:

Mars presents a unique and invaluable opportunity to unravel the history of our solar system, potentially revealing critical insights into the origin of life and planetary evolution. By studying Mars' geology, climate, and surface features, scientists could gain essential knowledge not only about the Red Planet's past but also about the broader processes that shaped Earth. Discovering evidence of past or even present life on Mars could profoundly impact our understanding of life's existence beyond Earth and offer clues about our own planet's future trajectory.

Technological Advancement:

The challenge of establishing a self-sustaining colony on Mars would necessitate ground-breaking advancements in space travel, life support systems, resource extraction, and habitat construction. The technologies developed for such a venture could have transformative benefits for life on Earth. For instance, innovations in closed-loop life support could lead to more efficient and sustainable systems in agriculture and water management. Moreover, advancements in space propulsion and energy solutions could drive progress in clean energy technologies and other critical sectors, benefiting society as a whole.

Human Curiosity and the Spirit of Adventure:

The innate human desire to explore the unknown has driven civilization forward for millennia. Mars, as the closest potentially habitable planet, represents the ultimate frontier for exploration—offering an unparalleled opportunity to experience an entirely alien environment. The pursuit of knowledge, the thrill of discovery, and the challenge of overcoming the unknown will continue to inspire future generations. Settling Mars is not only a scientific and technological endeavour, but also a testament to humanity's unyielding spirit of adventure and resilience.

Economic Opportunities:

While still speculative, Mars holds promising economic potential that could transform space industries. The possibility of mining Martian resources—such as water, minerals, and metals—could open new avenues for economic activity, while innovations in space travel could foster the growth of space tourism. As technology advances and Mars becomes more accessible, these opportunities may shift from hypothetical to tangible, laying the foundation for a new space economy that could benefit Earth and future Martian colonies alike.

Foundation of Dimension, Space, Time, and Spacetime in Physics and Mathematics:

Soumendra Nath Thakur

ORCiD: 0000-0003-1871-7803

08-11-2024

Abstract:

This study explores foundational concepts in physics and mathematics—dimension, space, time, and spacetime—through a classical framework and within the context of modern physics. Dimension is defined as the measurable extent of objects in space, specifying the minimum coordinates required to locate any point within a given region. Space is understood as a continuous three-dimensional expanse that provides the setting for all physical forms and movements, represented mathematically by Cartesian coordinates. Time is presented as the irreversible progression of existence, forming the framework for all events while remaining distinct from spatial dimensions. Furthermore, spacetime is introduced as a four-dimensional continuum within relativity, yet the discussion acknowledges that modern physics encompasses a diversity of theories, such as quantum mechanics and string theory, which may diverge from the relativistic spacetime model. By examining each concept’s role and interplay, this text offers a coherent, balanced understanding of these foundational constructs and their varied interpretations across different branches of physics and mathematics.

Keywords: Dimension, Space, Time, Spacetime, Classical Physics, Relativity, Quantum Mechanics, Cartesian Coordinates, Mathematical Structure

1. Dimension:

Dimension refers to the measurable extent of any physical object in space, typically represented by length, breadth, depth, or height. In physics and mathematics, a dimension signifies the minimum number of coordinates required to define any point within a given space, reflecting the size or span of an object or region in one specific direction, such as length, width, or depth.

2. Space:

Space encompasses the dimensions of height, width, and depth within which all physical objects exist and move. It is an unbounded, continuous expanse available for occupancy or activity. In classical physics, space is considered a three-dimensional continuum, often represented by the Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z). Mathematically, space is defined as a set of points organized by a specific structure, denoted as p(x, y, z).

3. Time:

Time is the indefinite, continuous progress of existence and events, encompassing the past, present, and future as a unified whole. It marks an irreversible and uniform succession, advancing independently of spatial dimensions but serving as the framework within which all existential events unfold. Though often conceptualized as the fourth dimension alongside the three spatial dimensions, time retains its unique character, enabling the experience of progression and change in existence. As such, events invoke time, bringing it into perceptible flow as they occur.

4. Spacetime in Relativity and Some Modern Physics: 

While relativity introduces the concept of spacetime as a unified four-dimensional continuum where space and time are interwoven, it is important to recognize that modern physics encompasses a variety of other disciplines such as quantum mechanics and string theory. These disciplines may offer alternative frameworks and interpretations that do not fully align with the relativistic view of spacetime. Therefore, spacetime as described in relativity is one perspective within the diverse and evolving field of modern physics.

#Dimension, #Space, #Time, #Spacetime, #ClassicalPhysics, #Relativity, #QuantumMechanics, #CartesianCoordinates, #MathematicalStructurere

Why can't Einstein's law of gravity predict gravitational lensing?

Soumendra Nath Thakur

08-11-2024

To clarify, there are three main considerations in the photon’s path:

Consideration 1: The Photon’s Initial Straight-Line Trajectory

The photon begins its journey from the source along a straight-line trajectory with velocity c. Here, an initial redshift occurs as the photon loses a slight amount of energy due to gravitational interaction with the source’s gravitational well, resulting in a corresponding increase in wavelength (Δλ>0). This change follows the relationship E = hf = hc/λ, where the energy E and frequency f are inherent to the photon and directly proportional to the wavelength.

Consideration 2: Arc Path and Energy Exchange During Gravitational Bypassing

As the photon approaches and passes an external massive body, it undergoes a temporary arc-shaped deviation in its trajectory due to the external gravitational influence. 

This interaction involves two phases:

First Half-Arc: A blueshift occurs, corresponding to a wavelength decrease (Δλ<0) as the photon gains energy due to gravitational influence while approaching the massive body.

Second Half-Arc: As the photon moves away, a redshift (Δλ>0) occurs, returning the photon’s wavelength to its original state as it completes the arc and leaves the gravitational field. This reversible shift is due to energy exchange within the field, summarized by E + Eg= E + 0, where Eg represents the energy gained and then lost by the photon within the gravitational arc path.

Consideration 3: Return to Original Straight-Line Trajectory

After exiting the gravitational field, the photon resumes its original straight-line path. At this point, it retains its inherent energy, with any additional energy or momentum imparted by the gravitational field removed. Its wavelength also remains as it was upon entry into the gravitational encounter, indicating no net change in wavelength (Δλ=0) beyond that caused by its initial emission.

However, GR asserts that light bends along the curvature of spacetime itself, where the gravitational field mirrors this curvature. In contrast, observational experiments suggest that light bending is primarily due to the curvature of the gravitational field itself, rather than spacetime. This discrepancy challenges GR's interpretation and suggests the need for a re-evaluation of theoretical models.

This study critically analyses the discrepancies between GR’s predictions and experimental observations. The findings suggest that while GR visualizes the gravitational field as mirroring spacetime curvature, this model does not fully capture the complexities of actual light-gravity interactions observed in experiments. Therefore, a re-examination of gravitational lensing and the underlying mechanisms of light propagation is necessary.

Conclusion:

GR posits that gravitational lensing occurs due to spacetime curvature, but experimental data suggest that the bending of light is primarily driven by the curvature of the gravitational field. This misalignment calls into question the validity of GR in explaining light’s interaction with gravity, suggesting that the relationship between light, gravity, and spacetime may require further exploration and modification. The study advocates for alternative models that could more accurately explain the observed phenomena, paving the way for future research into the mechanics of gravitational lensing.

#GravitationalLensing

Framework for Energy Manifestations in the Universe’s Mass-Energy Composition:

The study explores the universe's mass-energy composition, where 95% consists of dark energy and dark matter. Dark energy, with its distinctive property of negative pressure, drives the accelerated expansion of the universe. This work proposes an extended classical mechanics framework that integrates dark energy, dark matter, and effective mass as essential influences on cosmic structure and expansion. In this framework, effective mass is defined as a combination of positive and negative mass effects, with dark energy's negative apparent mass acting as an antigravitational force that counteracts gravitational collapse and supports expansion. 

The study reinterprets gravitational influence by relating gravitating mass (Mɢ) to both matter and effective mass, moving away from general relativity's reliance on spacetime curvature. Total energy in this model is presented as a balance between potential and kinetic energies, where potential energy embodies latent effects of cosmic fields, and kinetic energy includes dynamic mass-energy interactions. This approach offers an alternative to conventional spacetime curvature models, suggesting that cosmic mass-energy interactions can be comprehended within an extended classical mechanics framework that accounts for dark energy effects.

Soumendra Nath Thakur ¹ and Deep Bhattacharjee ²

01-11-2024

Abstract:

This study explores the total mass-energy content of the universe, revealing that approximately 5% comprises baryonic matter, while the remaining 95% consists of dark energy and dark matter. Dark energy, a major constituent, is characterized by a unique property of negative pressure, driving the accelerated expansion of the universe. This work delves into the intricate relationships among mass components—baryonic matter, dark matter, and dark energy—and examines their influence on gravitational dynamics, effective mass, and energy distribution across cosmic structures.

Keywords: Mass-Energy Composition, Dark Energy, Dark Matter, Baryonic Matter, Cosmic Dynamics, Effective Mass, Apparent Mass, Gravitational Interactions, Extended Classical Mechanics, Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy, Cosmic Expansion, Gravitational Stability, Energy Manifestations, Cosmological Principle, Negative Pressure, Mass Distribution, Gravitating Mass, Newtonian Mechanics,

Soumendra Nath Thakur ¹: Tagore’s Electronic Lab, W.B, India

Deep Bhattacharjee ²: Integrated Nano sciences Research (QLab), India, Formerly engaged with R&D EGSPL

¹ Corresponding Author: 

postmasterenator@gmail.com ; postmasterenator@telitnetwork.in 

² deepbhattacharjee.ac@gmail.com ; ² itsdeep@live.com

Funding: No specific funding was received for this work.

Potential competing interests: No potential competing interests to declare. 

1. Introduction:

The universe's mass-energy distribution is dominated by non-baryonic components, with dark energy and dark matter representing the bulk of its constituents. While dark energy accelerates cosmic expansion, dark matter contributes to the formation and stability of galaxies and clusters. This study provides an in-depth analysis of these components through an extended classical mechanics approach, highlighting key mass-energy interactions and their implications on the dynamics of large-scale structures.

2. Mass-Energy Constituents and Dark Energy in Cosmic Dynamics:

2.1 Baryonic Matter and Dark Energy Contributions:

Baryonic matter, making up only about 5% of the universe’s mass-energy content, is dwarfed by the contributions of dark energy and dark matter. Dark energy, exerting negative pressure, acts as an antigravitational force driving galactic recession and cosmic expansion.

2.2 Case Study: Coma Cluster Dynamics under Dark Energy Influence:

In "Dark Energy and the Structure of the Coma Cluster of Galaxies" by A. D. Chernin et al., researchers apply Newtonian mechanics to understand dark energy's role in the dynamics of the Coma Cluster. This analysis reveals that dark energy’s antigravitational force counteracts gravitational attraction, stabilizing the cluster and preventing collapse. The study redefines the gravitational influence by relating gravitating mass (Mɢ) to matter and effective mass, diverging from spacetime curvature interpretations in general relativity.

3. Mass Components in Extended Classical Mechanics:

The relationship among gravitating mass, matter mass, and effective mass provides a new perspective on gravitational interactions and dark energy influence. This is formalized as:

Mɢ = Mᴍ + Mᵉᶠᶠ

Where:

• Mɢ: Total gravitating mass, including both matter and effective mass contributions.
• Mᴍ: Matter mass, encompassing both baryonic and dark matter contributions.
• Mᵉᶠᶠ: Effective mass representing dark energy’s influence and any additional mass phenomena that alter gravitational dynamics.

This formulation integrates gravitational effects and dark energy, providing a robust framework for analysing gravitational interactions.

4. Apparent and Effective Mass Contributions:

4.1 Apparent Mass Dynamics:

Apparent mass within extended classical mechanics modifies Newton's equation of motion as:

F = (Mᴍ − Mᵃᵖᵖ)·aᵉᶠᶠ

where Mᵉᶠᶠ is the effective mass, combining matter mass Mᴍ and apparent mass Mᵃᵖᵖ contributions − which is negative. This reinterpretation leads to an adjusted gravitational potential, incorporating effective mass terms to account for dark energy influences, when when Mᵃᵖᵖ > Mᴍ.

4.2 Effective Mass in Gravitationally Bound Systems:

For systems like galaxy clusters, gravitational dynamics are influenced by matter mass (Mᴍ) and negative apparent mass (−Mᵃᵖᵖ). Here, total effective mass (Mᵉᶠᶠ) includes dark matter, baryonic matter, and apparent mass, expressed as:

Mɢ = Mᴏʀᴅ + Mᴅᴍ + (−Mᵃᵖᵖ)

where: 

• Mᴏʀᴅ: Ordinary baryonic matter.
• Mᴅᴍ: Dark matter mass.
• −Mᵃᵖᵖ: Negative apparent mass from effective acceleration.

5. Uniform Matter Density and Cosmological Homogeneity:

The matter-energy distribution is uniformly dense on cosmological scales, with dark energy maintaining a constant energy density. The cosmological principle posits that, on large scales, the universe is isotropic and homogeneous. This framework supports the uniform distribution of galaxies, clustered in structures spanning millions of light-years.

The matter density, including both dark and baryonic components, is expressed as:

ρᴍ =Mᴍ,ₜₒₜₐₗ/V

where ρᴍ represents the matter density per unit volume.

6. Total Energy of the Observable Universe:

The universe’s total energy is defined as:

Eₜₒₜₐₗ,ᴜₙᵢᵥ = PEᴍᴍ,ᴜₙᵢᵥ + KEᴍᴍ,ᴜₙᵢᵥ

where:

• PEᴍᴍ,ᴜₙᵢᵥ: Potential energy from gravitational and other cosmic fields within mass-energy manifestations.
• KEᴍᴍ,ᴜₙᵢᵥ: Kinetic energy resulting from effective mass motion, possibly influenced by dark energy transformations.

In this framework, KEᴍᴍ embodies transformations linked to apparent mass and effective mass contributions, suggesting that it serves as a representation of dark energy in the extended mechanics framework. This interpretation proposes that total energy consists of potential energy PEᴍᴍ and kinetic energy KEᴍᴍ, emphasizing the dynamic interplay between these forms and their contributions to cosmic structure and expansion.

This framework treats total energy as a balance between potential and kinetic energies, with potential energy representing latent cosmic field effects and kinetic energy incorporating dynamic mass-energy interactions across the universe.

This framework also emphasizes the integration of kinetic and potential energies while suggesting that rest energy, as traditionally defined in relativity, may not be essential in understanding the broader context of energy manifestations in the universe's mass-energy composition.

7. Discussion

The study titled "The Mass-Energy Composition of the Observable Universe: Part 1 - A Framework for Potential and Kinetic Energy Manifestations" offers a nuanced look at the universe’s mass-energy components, where dark matter and dark energy substantially outweigh baryonic matter. This work deepens our understanding of the cosmos by proposing an extended classical mechanics framework that treats dark energy, dark matter, and effective mass as key constituents influencing cosmic structure and expansion.

Central to the study’s analysis is the concept of effective mass, which combines matter mass and apparent mass contributions. By defining effective mass as a sum of positive and negative mass effects, the study introduces a paradigm in which dark energy’s negative apparent mass serves as an antigravitational force that counters gravitational collapse, thereby supporting cosmic expansion. This innovative interpretation challenges conventional spacetime curvature models within general relativity, suggesting instead that mass-energy interactions can be understood through classical mechanics extended to account for dark energy effects.

A particularly insightful aspect of this study is its use of the Coma Cluster as a case study. Drawing on Chernin et al.'s work, it examines how dark energy exerts an antigravitational effect that stabilizes the cluster. The analysis indicates that dark energy plays a pivotal role in maintaining large-scale structure, as its influence manifests as a negative apparent mass (−Mᵃᵖᵖ), which adds to the cluster’s overall effective mass. This reinterpretation provides an alternative to the dark matter-centric view of galactic dynamics by attributing part of the gravitational stability to dark energy's influence on mass distribution.

Additionally, the study delves into gravitational dynamics through equations where apparent mass alters the traditional force equation, 

F = (Mᴍ − Mᵃᵖᵖ)·aᵉᶠᶠ. 

Here, apparent mass is posited as a variable that offsets ordinary matter mass under certain conditions (when Mᵃᵖᵖ > Mᴍ). 

This framework allows for a refined approach to gravitational potential in systems where dark energy and dark matter are dominant. Through these equations, the study provides a structured method for calculating total gravitating mass as a sum of ordinary matter, dark matter, and effective mass components, addressing the distinct yet interconnected roles of these masses in large-scale structures.

The study also emphasizes the cosmological principle of homogeneity and isotropy on cosmic scales, which supports the assumption that dark energy density remains constant throughout the universe. This uniformity of mass-energy distribution underscores the concept that, while dark energy is responsible for cosmic acceleration, it does so without disrupting the overall homogeneity of matter density.

In summary, the study presents a coherent model that integrates potential and kinetic energy manifestations of mass components, redefining how dark energy and dark matter contribute to cosmic expansion and stability. By extending classical mechanics to account for dark energy's negative pressure, it suggests a viable alternative to the relativistic interpretation of gravitational dynamics. This model has implications for the future study of galaxy formation, cluster dynamics, and the ultimate fate of the universe, highlighting the necessity of viewing mass-energy as an intricate blend of baryonic, dark, and effective masses in an evolving cosmic landscape.

8. Conclusion:

This study presents a structured approach to understanding the universe’s mass-energy composition, emphasizing the integration of dark matter, dark energy, and effective mass in cosmic dynamics. By redefining mass interactions within an extended classical framework, this approach highlights the dynamic role of potential and kinetic energies in shaping cosmic structure and evolution. The distinctions between effective and apparent mass provide further insight into the forces governing the universe’s large-scale motion and structure.

References

[1] Chernin, A. D., Bisnovatyi-Kogan, G. S., Teerikorpi, P., Valtonen, M. J., Byrd, G. G., & Merafina, M. (2013). Dark energy and the structure of the Coma cluster of galaxies. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 553, A101. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201220781

[2] Sanders, R. H., & McGaugh, S. S. (2002). Modified Newtonian dynamics as an alternative to dark matter. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 40(1), 263–317. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.40.060401.093923

[3] Thakur, S. N. (2024). Extended Classical Mechanics: Vol-1 - Equivalence Principle, Mass and Gravitational Dynamics. Preprints.Org (MDPI), 202409.1190.v2, https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202409.1190.v2

[4] Thakur, S. N. Dark Energy as a Consequence of Gravitational and Kinetic Interactions: The Dynamic Nature of the Universe. ResearchGate, publication/384198607, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384198607/

[5] Thakur, S. N., Bhattacharjee. D. (2024). Effective Mass of the Energetic Pre- Universe: Total Mass Dynamics from Effective and Rest Mass. ResearchGate (378298896), publication/378298896. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18182.18241

[6] Thakur, S. N. (2024). Mass and Effective Mass: Matter, Gravitating Mass, and Dark Energy Impacts, ResearchGate (381254461). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381254461_Mass_and_Effective_Mass_Matter_Gravitating_Mass_and_Dark_Energy_Impacts

#MassEnergyComposition, #DarkEnergy, #DarkMatter, #BaryonicMatter, #CosmicDynamics, #EffectiveMass, #ApparentMass, #GravitationalInteractions, #ExtendedClassicalMechanics, #KineticEnergy, #PotentialEnergy, #CosmicExpansion, #GravitationalStability, #EnergyManifestations, #CosmologicalPrinciple, #NegativePressure, #MassDistribution, #GravitatingMass, #NewtonianMechanics,